Bible Study from an Archaeological Perspective
Lesson One
The Pottery Neolithic period through the Early Bronze period – From the creation of Adam unto the Flood.
Genesis 1:9-13 – …let the dry land appear…; Let the earth bring forth grass, and herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth…
Genesis 1:20-25 – …Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. …Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind…
• Body and soul – self-awareness
Paleontology – The Encyclopedia Britannica defines Paleontology as the scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks.
Genesis 1:26-27 – And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them (ca. 3899 B.C.).
God is a triad (trinity) – Matthew 3:16-17
Man is a triad – I Thessalonians 5:23; Hebrews 4:12
• Body, soul, and spirit – God-awareness
Archaeology – The Encyclopedia Britannica defines Archaeology as the scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities.
Archaeological periods
Pottery Neolithic Period (ca. 6000 B.C. – ca. 4500 B.C.)
Scripture reading:
Genesis 3:6-7 – Adam and Eve.
Genesis 3:20-24 – God drove out the man.
Genesis 4:1-2 – And Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived, and bare Cain, and said, I have gotten a man from the LORD. And she again bare his brother Abel. And Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground.
Archaeological evidence:
Dr. Tamar Noy, curator of prehistoric periods, at the Israel Museum wrote, “…The creativity of Neolithic humans and their changing attitudes to many aspects of their lives led to innovations that included the systematic cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals, followed by the growth of settlements, which had to accommodate expanding permanent populations. In time, a more complex society evolved, which practiced a variety of crafts, engaged in trade, and developed a rich religious and spiritual life” (Dr. Tamar Noy, Treasures of the Holy Land, Neolithic Period, 1986, p. 41).
“Pottery, a great invention of the Neolithic period, came into use in the sixth millennium B.C. and provided a reliable means of cooking, transporting, and storing food. The potter fashioned the vessels by hand and baked them in an open fire (later in a kiln). Pottery is easily breakable, but the fragments are practically indestructible; these pieces give evidence of the forms and decorations unique to each culture and each period. Therefore, from this point on, pottery is important in archaeological dating” (Dr. Tamar Noy, Treasures of the Holy Land, Neolithic Period, 1986, 42, 43).
The Chalcolithic (copper/stone) period (ca. 4500 – ca. 3150 B.C.)
Scripture reading:
Genesis 4:17-22 – Tubalcain, an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.
“brass” – Strong’s #5178 = copper
Genesis 4:25-26 – Seth
Genesis 5:1 – This is the book of the generations of Adam… (Like Gen. 2:4)
Book; Strong’s #5612 – writing; from #5608 – to score with a mark, to inscribe.
When Adam was created, he had the ability to understand God and speak to God. He also had the ability to put his thoughts into writing. You could say that Adam hit the ground running!
Genesis 5:3 – Adam 130 years-old when Seth is born. 3899 – 130 = 3769 B.C.
Gen 5:6 – Seth lived 105 yrs. and begat Enos. 3664
Gen. 5:9 – Enos lived 90 yrs. and begat Cainan. 3574
Gen. 5:12 – Cainan lived 70 yrs. and begat Mahalaleel. 3504
Gen. 5:15 – Mahalaleel lived 65 yrs. and begat Jared. 3439
Gen. 5:18 – Jared lived 162 yrs. and he begat Enoch. 3277
Gen. 5:21 – Enoch lived 65 yrs. and he begat Methuselah (who lived 969 yrs.) 3212
Archaeological evidence:
Lesson One
The Pottery Neolithic period through the Early Bronze period – From the creation of Adam unto the Flood.
Genesis 1:9-13 – …let the dry land appear…; Let the earth bring forth grass, and herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth…
Genesis 1:20-25 – …Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. …Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind…
• Body and soul – self-awareness
Paleontology – The Encyclopedia Britannica defines Paleontology as the scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks.
Genesis 1:26-27 – And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them (ca. 3899 B.C.).
God is a triad (trinity) – Matthew 3:16-17
Man is a triad – I Thessalonians 5:23; Hebrews 4:12
• Body, soul, and spirit – God-awareness
Archaeology – The Encyclopedia Britannica defines Archaeology as the scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities.
Archaeological periods
Pottery Neolithic Period (ca. 6000 B.C. – ca. 4500 B.C.)
Scripture reading:
Genesis 3:6-7 – Adam and Eve.
Genesis 3:20-24 – God drove out the man.
Genesis 4:1-2 – And Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived, and bare Cain, and said, I have gotten a man from the LORD. And she again bare his brother Abel. And Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground.
Archaeological evidence:
Dr. Tamar Noy, curator of prehistoric periods, at the Israel Museum wrote, “…The creativity of Neolithic humans and their changing attitudes to many aspects of their lives led to innovations that included the systematic cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals, followed by the growth of settlements, which had to accommodate expanding permanent populations. In time, a more complex society evolved, which practiced a variety of crafts, engaged in trade, and developed a rich religious and spiritual life” (Dr. Tamar Noy, Treasures of the Holy Land, Neolithic Period, 1986, p. 41).
- As we look at what the Bible says about tilling the ground and keeping the sheep, we see how Dr. Noy’s observations read like an interpretive account of the biblical narrative presented as history. Note that Dr. Noy’s dating is approximate, and, in my opinion, she may be off by up to 1000 years.
“Pottery, a great invention of the Neolithic period, came into use in the sixth millennium B.C. and provided a reliable means of cooking, transporting, and storing food. The potter fashioned the vessels by hand and baked them in an open fire (later in a kiln). Pottery is easily breakable, but the fragments are practically indestructible; these pieces give evidence of the forms and decorations unique to each culture and each period. Therefore, from this point on, pottery is important in archaeological dating” (Dr. Tamar Noy, Treasures of the Holy Land, Neolithic Period, 1986, 42, 43).
The Chalcolithic (copper/stone) period (ca. 4500 – ca. 3150 B.C.)
Scripture reading:
Genesis 4:17-22 – Tubalcain, an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.
“brass” – Strong’s #5178 = copper
Genesis 4:25-26 – Seth
Genesis 5:1 – This is the book of the generations of Adam… (Like Gen. 2:4)
Book; Strong’s #5612 – writing; from #5608 – to score with a mark, to inscribe.
When Adam was created, he had the ability to understand God and speak to God. He also had the ability to put his thoughts into writing. You could say that Adam hit the ground running!
Genesis 5:3 – Adam 130 years-old when Seth is born. 3899 – 130 = 3769 B.C.
Gen 5:6 – Seth lived 105 yrs. and begat Enos. 3664
Gen. 5:9 – Enos lived 90 yrs. and begat Cainan. 3574
Gen. 5:12 – Cainan lived 70 yrs. and begat Mahalaleel. 3504
Gen. 5:15 – Mahalaleel lived 65 yrs. and begat Jared. 3439
Gen. 5:18 – Jared lived 162 yrs. and he begat Enoch. 3277
Gen. 5:21 – Enoch lived 65 yrs. and he begat Methuselah (who lived 969 yrs.) 3212
Archaeological evidence:
Pre-Dynastic, Black-Topped Earthenware Jar with modelled rim and flat base. From the Naqada, Egypt site. Purchased in 1987 from Malter Galleries (Michael Malter), Encino, California.
Distinctive, black-topped red ware jars were produced in Egypt during the Naqada I and II phases of the Predynastic Period (3550-3400 B.C.) This type of pot was formed by hand. Before the pot was fired, it was burnished with a smooth pebble until it was polished. After the pot was fired, the upper part of the vessel was immediately placed in organic material, which resulted in the blackened rims characteristic of this type of pottery.
From Jerusalem:
One morning I was asked to wash artifacts that had been brought up to site headquarters in numbered pails. Dr. Shiloh handed me a special pail which contained, among other things, flint tools that had been found in a pit in the bedrock near the Gihon Spring. The flint points and flakes were still so sharp that it felt like I was touching broken glass beneath the murky water in the pail. In Dr. Shiloh’s opinion, the flint tools and associated pottery appeared to be from the Chalcolithic period.
From Jerusalem:
One morning I was asked to wash artifacts that had been brought up to site headquarters in numbered pails. Dr. Shiloh handed me a special pail which contained, among other things, flint tools that had been found in a pit in the bedrock near the Gihon Spring. The flint points and flakes were still so sharp that it felt like I was touching broken glass beneath the murky water in the pail. In Dr. Shiloh’s opinion, the flint tools and associated pottery appeared to be from the Chalcolithic period.
Israeli Arrowhead. Unifacial except for stem which is napped on both sides. Length 1.45”. Purchased in 2020 from Antillian Antiquities (Larry Roberts), Gainesville, Florida.
Later that day, I turned to Genesis chapter one in my Bible and noticed the familiar 4004 B.C. date in the margin. It was exciting for me to think that I had just handled artifacts from Jerusalem that might have come from that time – the time of Adam and Eve! My area supervisor, Donald Ariel, later wrote:
“The great importance of the assemblage published here lies in the fact that it is the first undisturbed assemblage of Chalcolithic pottery to be found in Jerusalem. Though the small quantity of material does not permit discussion in depth, it is clear evidence of settlement of unknown extent of Jerusalem in the Chalcolithic period. A few Chalcolithic sherds have been found in different locations all over the eastern slope of the City of David hill. One might suggest that such a settlement grew up around and adjacent to the Gihon Spring. Similar settlements close to springs are known in the Chalcolithic period; an example near Jerusalem is Sataf (Gibson, Ibbs, and Kloner 1991: 34-35)” (Qedem 40, City of David Excavations – Final Report V, 2000, Alon De Groot and Donald Ariel, pp. 92-93).
“The great importance of the assemblage published here lies in the fact that it is the first undisturbed assemblage of Chalcolithic pottery to be found in Jerusalem. Though the small quantity of material does not permit discussion in depth, it is clear evidence of settlement of unknown extent of Jerusalem in the Chalcolithic period. A few Chalcolithic sherds have been found in different locations all over the eastern slope of the City of David hill. One might suggest that such a settlement grew up around and adjacent to the Gihon Spring. Similar settlements close to springs are known in the Chalcolithic period; an example near Jerusalem is Sataf (Gibson, Ibbs, and Kloner 1991: 34-35)” (Qedem 40, City of David Excavations – Final Report V, 2000, Alon De Groot and Donald Ariel, pp. 92-93).
In 1961, a group of archaeologists were looking for ancient Hebrew scrolls in the Judean Desert. Instead, they found this striking double ibex and the rest of the hoard now known as the “Cave of the Treasure.” (Courtesy of the Israel Museum)
An astonishing hoard of 429 ritual objects from the Chalcolithic period was discovered in 1961 in a remote cave above Nahal Mishmar in the Judean Desert. The objects were found wrapped in a woven mat, concealed behind a large stone. They included hundreds of mace heads, dozens of scepters, and several enigmatic objects, such as the "crowns." Most of the objects were made of copper, with a few made of ivory or stone.
The Chalcolithic trove showed an advanced local civilization that could import copper and create sophisticated artwork. It is possible that this spectacular treasure belonged to the sanctuary at En Gedi, some 12 km away. It seems that some approaching danger led the priests to stow away the precious objects in the hope of better days to come. (Courtesy of the Israel Museum).
Early Bronze period (ca. 3150 – ca. 2200 B.C.)
Scripture reading:
Gen. 5:25 – Methuselah lived 187yrs. and begat Lamech. 3025
Genesis 5:5 – Adam died after living 930 years. – 2969 B.C.
Gen. 5:28 – Lamech lived 182 yrs. and begat… Noah. 2843
Gen. 5:32 – Noah was 500 yrs. old and begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth. 2343
Genesis 6:5-9a – …every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.
Gen. 9:28-29 – The Flood – 2243 B.C. (Noah lived 950 yrs. – 350 yrs. after the flood)
Gen. 11:10 – Shem was 100 yrs. old, and begat Arphaxad 2 years after the flood. 2241
Archaeological evidence:
Author Barbara Bell, who, in the early 1970s, published several journal articles on the connection of climate variability to the fall of Egyptian dynasties, wrote, “Although the details remain obscure and the primary cause open to dispute, some aspects of the trouble which occurred at the end of Dynasty VI (ca. 2345 BC–ca. 2181 BC) seem clear: texts from the period indicate that hardly any form of civil order was absent, ranging from strife between districts to looting and killing by infiltrating Asiatics in the Delta, to individual crime run riot, to revolution and social anarchy. Reference to famine occurs in several texts” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), p.7).
Miriam Tadmor, Senior curator of Chalcolithic and Canaanite Periods, Israel Museum, wrote, “The emergence of the Bronze Age civilization heralds a decisive departure from the earlier Chalcolithic culture. Reasons for these far-reaching and as yet unexplained changes have been sought in climatic fluctuations and in population influx from the north. Settlement patterns changed: villages in the semiarid northern Negev and in the Golan, abandoned at the end of the Chalcolithic period, were not resettled” (Miriam Tadmore, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p.88).
“In the last stage of the early Bronze Age, there was a deterioration in traditional pottery forms... By the time of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2345 BC–ca. 2181 BC), Egyptian influence was virtually nonexistent, and Egyptian royal names are absent even in the copper mines of Sinai. The collapse of the urban order is synchronous with the fall of the Old Kingdom in Egypt and with the collapse of the Akkadian empire in Mesopotamia. The reason for such widespread destruction must have been manifold and complex. Ethnic movements from the north have been singled out as a decisive factor, but climatic and internal changes have also been emphasized. …Coppersmiths produced tools and weapons which, though seldom outstanding, were always effective and well made. It is therefore astonishing that so few objects of high artistic quality have been unearthed: a handful of human or animal representations, some bone carvings, a few small ivories and sculptures, and some jewelry. Cylinder-seal impressions add some lively designs but are simple and crudely made. There is a striking contrast between the somewhat utilitarian (practical) material culture of the Early Bronze Age and the richly artistic achievements of the preceding Chalcolithic period” (Miriam Tadmor, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p. 90).
Scripture reading:
Gen. 5:25 – Methuselah lived 187yrs. and begat Lamech. 3025
Genesis 5:5 – Adam died after living 930 years. – 2969 B.C.
Gen. 5:28 – Lamech lived 182 yrs. and begat… Noah. 2843
Gen. 5:32 – Noah was 500 yrs. old and begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth. 2343
Genesis 6:5-9a – …every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.
Gen. 9:28-29 – The Flood – 2243 B.C. (Noah lived 950 yrs. – 350 yrs. after the flood)
Gen. 11:10 – Shem was 100 yrs. old, and begat Arphaxad 2 years after the flood. 2241
Archaeological evidence:
Author Barbara Bell, who, in the early 1970s, published several journal articles on the connection of climate variability to the fall of Egyptian dynasties, wrote, “Although the details remain obscure and the primary cause open to dispute, some aspects of the trouble which occurred at the end of Dynasty VI (ca. 2345 BC–ca. 2181 BC) seem clear: texts from the period indicate that hardly any form of civil order was absent, ranging from strife between districts to looting and killing by infiltrating Asiatics in the Delta, to individual crime run riot, to revolution and social anarchy. Reference to famine occurs in several texts” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), p.7).
Miriam Tadmor, Senior curator of Chalcolithic and Canaanite Periods, Israel Museum, wrote, “The emergence of the Bronze Age civilization heralds a decisive departure from the earlier Chalcolithic culture. Reasons for these far-reaching and as yet unexplained changes have been sought in climatic fluctuations and in population influx from the north. Settlement patterns changed: villages in the semiarid northern Negev and in the Golan, abandoned at the end of the Chalcolithic period, were not resettled” (Miriam Tadmore, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p.88).
“In the last stage of the early Bronze Age, there was a deterioration in traditional pottery forms... By the time of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2345 BC–ca. 2181 BC), Egyptian influence was virtually nonexistent, and Egyptian royal names are absent even in the copper mines of Sinai. The collapse of the urban order is synchronous with the fall of the Old Kingdom in Egypt and with the collapse of the Akkadian empire in Mesopotamia. The reason for such widespread destruction must have been manifold and complex. Ethnic movements from the north have been singled out as a decisive factor, but climatic and internal changes have also been emphasized. …Coppersmiths produced tools and weapons which, though seldom outstanding, were always effective and well made. It is therefore astonishing that so few objects of high artistic quality have been unearthed: a handful of human or animal representations, some bone carvings, a few small ivories and sculptures, and some jewelry. Cylinder-seal impressions add some lively designs but are simple and crudely made. There is a striking contrast between the somewhat utilitarian (practical) material culture of the Early Bronze Age and the richly artistic achievements of the preceding Chalcolithic period” (Miriam Tadmor, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p. 90).
Early Bronze Period Jar with globular body, short, everted neck (crude repair), three evenly spaced button knobs, red burnished slip, and flat base. Found in Jerusalem. Purchased in 1984 from the City of David Museum (Prop. Abed Abu Sbeih), Silwan: Near Gihon Spring, Jerusalem, Israel.
Barbara Bell wrote, "In Egypt, where the chronology is best established, the first Dark Ages began around 2200 B.C., when at the end of Dynasty VI (ca. 2345 B.C.–ca. 2181 B.C.) Egypt, until then a very stable society, with seeming suddenness fell into anarchy. About the same time the Akkadian Empire disintegrated. …In western and southern Anatolia ‘the end of the Early Bronze II period is marked by a catastrophe of such magnitude as to remain unparalleled until the very end of the Bronze Age’ (Melcart 1962); widespread destruction is followed by general decline in material culture and a decrease of about 75 percent in the number of known settlements. We may probably include also the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.”
“…As supporting evidence for a dust storm interpretation, we note Butzer’s (1959b:66) finding that at Hierakonopolis, nearby, a predynastic cemetery was denuded by wind action, which removed up to 2 M. (6.56168 feet) of fairly resistant silt and exposed the burials, probably sometime after the end of Dynasty VI. At Abydos, some 100 km. to the north, the ‘funerary palace’ of Queen Merneith of Dynasty I (c. 3150 B.C. – c. 2890 B.C.) suffered such denudation that its walls were reduced to only a few courses of bricks, partly buried beneath a layer of sand by the time of Dynasty XII, when a few small mastabas were constructed over the ruins. (B.J. Kemp 1966, JEA 52)” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), 1-26).
Isn’t it more likely that the predynastic cemetery was denuded by the action of water? More than 6 feet of “fairly resistant silt” was removed to expose the burials. Regardless of what you believe about the flood, you must admit that, regarding this specific period in time, the parallels are remarkable between what Scripture says and what the archaeologists have found.
NEXT – Lesson Two
The Middle Bronze period (2200 – 1550 B.C.) through the Late Bronze period (1550 – 1200 B.C.) – From the Flood, through the Exodus, unto the Judges.
“…As supporting evidence for a dust storm interpretation, we note Butzer’s (1959b:66) finding that at Hierakonopolis, nearby, a predynastic cemetery was denuded by wind action, which removed up to 2 M. (6.56168 feet) of fairly resistant silt and exposed the burials, probably sometime after the end of Dynasty VI. At Abydos, some 100 km. to the north, the ‘funerary palace’ of Queen Merneith of Dynasty I (c. 3150 B.C. – c. 2890 B.C.) suffered such denudation that its walls were reduced to only a few courses of bricks, partly buried beneath a layer of sand by the time of Dynasty XII, when a few small mastabas were constructed over the ruins. (B.J. Kemp 1966, JEA 52)” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), 1-26).
Isn’t it more likely that the predynastic cemetery was denuded by the action of water? More than 6 feet of “fairly resistant silt” was removed to expose the burials. Regardless of what you believe about the flood, you must admit that, regarding this specific period in time, the parallels are remarkable between what Scripture says and what the archaeologists have found.
NEXT – Lesson Two
The Middle Bronze period (2200 – 1550 B.C.) through the Late Bronze period (1550 – 1200 B.C.) – From the Flood, through the Exodus, unto the Judges.
Bible Study from an Archaeological Perspective
Lesson Two
The Middle Bronze period through the Late Bronze period – From the Flood unto the Judges.
Review
Genesis 1:26 – And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
Man is made up of body, soul, and spirit (I Thessalonians 5:23; Hebrews 4:12). It is spirit – “God-awareness” that sets us apart from the beast of the earth and cattle.
Archaeology is the study of the material remains of past human life and activities.
Pottery Neolithic Period (ca. 6000 B.C. – ca. 4500 B.C.) Archaeologists claim that they have found evidence of “cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals, followed by the growth of settlements” from this period (Gen. 4:2).
According to Scripture (figuring backwards from the time of the Exodus), Adam “hit the ground running” about 3899 B.C., being able to understand, speak, and write words (Gen, 5:1 – 2nd toledot). This would have occurred during what archaeologists call the Chalcolithic period (ca. 4500 – ca. 3150 B.C.).
Using the chronological data in Genesis 5 and 11, which gives an unbroken male lineage, with numbers of years, from the creation to Abraham, we were able to place Noah and his children into the Early Bronze period (ca. 3150 – ca. 2200 B.C.).
Gen. 5:32 – Noah was 500 yrs. old and begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth – 2343 B.C.
Genesis 6:5-9a – …every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually (3rd toledot).
Archaeological evidence:
Author Barbara Bell wrote, “texts from the period indicate that hardly any form of civil order was absent, ranging from strife between districts to looting and killing by infiltrating Asiatics in the Delta, to individual crime run riot, to revolution and social anarchy. Reference to famine occurs in several texts” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), p.7).
“…As supporting evidence for a dust storm interpretation, we note Butzer’s (1959b:66) finding that at Hierakonopolis, nearby, a predynastic cemetery was denuded by wind action, which removed up to 2 M. (6.56168 feet) of fairly resistant silt and exposed the burials, probably sometime after the end of Dynasty VI” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), 1-26).
At the completion of lesson one, we concluded that it was more likely that the predynastic cemetery at Hierakonopolis was denuded by the action of water, not wind.
Lesson Two
Gen. 9:28-29 – The Flood – 2243 B.C. (Noah lived 950 yrs. – 350 yrs. after the flood). Noah was born in 2843 B.C. - 950 = 1893 when he died. 350 years before his death would have been 2243, when Noah was 600 yrs. old. Genesis 8:13 says, And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first month, in the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth: and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and, behold, the face of the ground was dry.
Scripture reading:
Genesis 9:1 – And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth.
Genesis 9:7 – And you, be ye fruitful, and multiply; bring forth abundantly in the earth, and multiply therein.
Genesis 10:1 – Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth… (4th toledot). The first three tablets may have been carried on the ark.
Genesis 11:1-9 – …lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth (man’s way).
Gen. 11:10 – Shem was 100 yrs. old, and begat Arphaxad 2 years after the flood. 2241
The Middle Bronze period (2200 – 1550 B.C)
Gen. 11:12 – Arphaxad lived 35 yrs. and begat Salah. 2206
Gen. 11:14 – Salah lived 30 yrs. and begat Eber. 2176
Gen. 11:16 – Eber lived 34 yrs. and begat Peleg. 2142
Gen. 11:18 – Peleg lived 30 yrs. and begat Reu. 2112
Gen. 11:20 – Reu lived 32 yrs. and begat Serug. 2080
Gen. 11:22 – Serug lived 30 yrs. and begat Nahor 2050
Archaeological evidence:
Miriam Tadmor, Senior curator of Chalcolithic and Canaanite Periods, Israel Museum, wrote, “The principal sources for the study of this short period were traditionally tomb offerings – pottery, weapons, and some jewelry – unearthed in excavations of extensive cemeteries. Traces of contemporaneous settlements were encountered in the excavation of only a few mounds. Without exception these settlements were poor, limited in size, and of short duration. The absence of towns is in sharp contrast to the rich remains of the preceding and succeeding urban civilizations. To date, no true urban centers of that period have been uncovered.”
“In Egypt this time corresponds to the turbulent First Intermediate period, ending with the Eleventh Dynasty (2134 B.C.-1991 B.C.), and no Egyptian activity or influence can be detected, not even in the southern regions bordering Egypt” (Miriam Tadmor, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p. 90).
Lesson Two
The Middle Bronze period through the Late Bronze period – From the Flood unto the Judges.
Review
Genesis 1:26 – And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
Man is made up of body, soul, and spirit (I Thessalonians 5:23; Hebrews 4:12). It is spirit – “God-awareness” that sets us apart from the beast of the earth and cattle.
Archaeology is the study of the material remains of past human life and activities.
Pottery Neolithic Period (ca. 6000 B.C. – ca. 4500 B.C.) Archaeologists claim that they have found evidence of “cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals, followed by the growth of settlements” from this period (Gen. 4:2).
According to Scripture (figuring backwards from the time of the Exodus), Adam “hit the ground running” about 3899 B.C., being able to understand, speak, and write words (Gen, 5:1 – 2nd toledot). This would have occurred during what archaeologists call the Chalcolithic period (ca. 4500 – ca. 3150 B.C.).
Using the chronological data in Genesis 5 and 11, which gives an unbroken male lineage, with numbers of years, from the creation to Abraham, we were able to place Noah and his children into the Early Bronze period (ca. 3150 – ca. 2200 B.C.).
Gen. 5:32 – Noah was 500 yrs. old and begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth – 2343 B.C.
Genesis 6:5-9a – …every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually (3rd toledot).
Archaeological evidence:
Author Barbara Bell wrote, “texts from the period indicate that hardly any form of civil order was absent, ranging from strife between districts to looting and killing by infiltrating Asiatics in the Delta, to individual crime run riot, to revolution and social anarchy. Reference to famine occurs in several texts” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), p.7).
“…As supporting evidence for a dust storm interpretation, we note Butzer’s (1959b:66) finding that at Hierakonopolis, nearby, a predynastic cemetery was denuded by wind action, which removed up to 2 M. (6.56168 feet) of fairly resistant silt and exposed the burials, probably sometime after the end of Dynasty VI” (Barbara Bell, The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan. 1971), 1-26).
At the completion of lesson one, we concluded that it was more likely that the predynastic cemetery at Hierakonopolis was denuded by the action of water, not wind.
Lesson Two
Gen. 9:28-29 – The Flood – 2243 B.C. (Noah lived 950 yrs. – 350 yrs. after the flood). Noah was born in 2843 B.C. - 950 = 1893 when he died. 350 years before his death would have been 2243, when Noah was 600 yrs. old. Genesis 8:13 says, And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first month, in the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth: and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and, behold, the face of the ground was dry.
Scripture reading:
Genesis 9:1 – And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth.
Genesis 9:7 – And you, be ye fruitful, and multiply; bring forth abundantly in the earth, and multiply therein.
Genesis 10:1 – Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth… (4th toledot). The first three tablets may have been carried on the ark.
Genesis 11:1-9 – …lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth (man’s way).
Gen. 11:10 – Shem was 100 yrs. old, and begat Arphaxad 2 years after the flood. 2241
The Middle Bronze period (2200 – 1550 B.C)
Gen. 11:12 – Arphaxad lived 35 yrs. and begat Salah. 2206
Gen. 11:14 – Salah lived 30 yrs. and begat Eber. 2176
Gen. 11:16 – Eber lived 34 yrs. and begat Peleg. 2142
Gen. 11:18 – Peleg lived 30 yrs. and begat Reu. 2112
Gen. 11:20 – Reu lived 32 yrs. and begat Serug. 2080
Gen. 11:22 – Serug lived 30 yrs. and begat Nahor 2050
Archaeological evidence:
Miriam Tadmor, Senior curator of Chalcolithic and Canaanite Periods, Israel Museum, wrote, “The principal sources for the study of this short period were traditionally tomb offerings – pottery, weapons, and some jewelry – unearthed in excavations of extensive cemeteries. Traces of contemporaneous settlements were encountered in the excavation of only a few mounds. Without exception these settlements were poor, limited in size, and of short duration. The absence of towns is in sharp contrast to the rich remains of the preceding and succeeding urban civilizations. To date, no true urban centers of that period have been uncovered.”
“In Egypt this time corresponds to the turbulent First Intermediate period, ending with the Eleventh Dynasty (2134 B.C.-1991 B.C.), and no Egyptian activity or influence can be detected, not even in the southern regions bordering Egypt” (Miriam Tadmor, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p. 90).
Middle Bronze Four-spouted lamp with traces of burning, flat base - Amiran – plate 22, #11; plate 59, #1. Found in Jerusalem. Purchased in 1984 from Mount Ophel Antiquities (Prop. Mohammad Abdolah), Silwan: Near Gihon Spring, Jerusalem, Israel.
“The beginning of the second millennium B.C. was marked by the gradual return of urban institutions, which ultimately led to the creation of city-states. These remained the paramount political divisions in Canaan throughout this and the following Late Canaanite period until ca. 1200 B.C. In Egyptian New Kingdom sources, cuneiform inscriptions, and numerous verses in the Bible, the country is known as Canaan and its inhabitants as Canaanites. Cultural continuity corroborated by excavations indicates that both terms can be safely applied to the entire second millennium.”
“At the beginning of this era, under the vigorous Twelfth Dynasty, Egypt recovered its stability. In the course of this period Canaan came under its cultural influence, though it was never actually incorporated into Egypt.”
“In Mesopotamia and in northern Syria, Amorite dynasties established themselves in numerous kingdoms. In Mesopotamia the foremost were Assyria under Shamshi Adad I and Babylonia in the age of Hammurabi” (Miriam Tadmor, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p. 91-92).
“The beginning of the second millennium B.C. was marked by the gradual return of urban institutions, which ultimately led to the creation of city-states. These remained the paramount political divisions in Canaan throughout this and the following Late Canaanite period until ca. 1200 B.C. In Egyptian New Kingdom sources, cuneiform inscriptions, and numerous verses in the Bible, the country is known as Canaan and its inhabitants as Canaanites. Cultural continuity corroborated by excavations indicates that both terms can be safely applied to the entire second millennium.”
“At the beginning of this era, under the vigorous Twelfth Dynasty, Egypt recovered its stability. In the course of this period Canaan came under its cultural influence, though it was never actually incorporated into Egypt.”
“In Mesopotamia and in northern Syria, Amorite dynasties established themselves in numerous kingdoms. In Mesopotamia the foremost were Assyria under Shamshi Adad I and Babylonia in the age of Hammurabi” (Miriam Tadmor, Treasures of the Holy Land, Canaanite Period, Bronze Age, 1986, p. 91-92).
Sumerian Cuneiform Tablet in Clay Envelope. This is an administrative document from the period of the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2094–c. 2047 B.C.). Purchased in 2021 from the Estate of F. Richards Ford III, Greenwich, Connecticut.
Egyptian carved wooden lotus flower from the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030 to 1650 B.C. – Dynasty 11 through Dynasty 13). This would have been attached to furniture such as a chair or a bed. Purchased in 2022 from Siwa Gallery Nashville Tennessee.
Egyptian clay figurine dating from ca, 19th century B.C. The inscription on hieratic script lists Egypt's enemies, amongst them Jerusalem. The figurine, in the shape of a kneeling prisoner, was smashed in a ritual cursing ceremony. © Royal Museums of Art and History, Bruxelles.
Scripture reading:
Gen. 11:24 – Nahor lived 29 yrs. and begat Terah 2021
Gen. 11:26 – Terah lived 70 yrs. and begat Abram 1951
Gen. 25:26 – Isaac was 60 yrs. old when Jacob was born. 1791
The Late Bronze Period (1550 – 1200 B.C.)
Exodus 12:40-41 – Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years. And it came to pass at the end of the four hundred and thirty years, even the selfsame day it came to pass, that all the hosts of the Lord went out from the land of Egypt (According to Genesis 12:10, the sojourning began with Abraham in Egypt).
Genesis 12:10 – Abram went into Egypt to sojourn there. 1876 – 430 = 1446
Galatians 3:17 – And this I say, that the covenant (Gen. 12:1-3), that was confirmed before of God in Christ, the law, which was four hundred and thirty years after, cannot disannul, that it should make the promise of none effect. 1876 – 430 = 1446
Gen. 47:9 – Jacob (along with his children) arrived in Egypt exactly 215 years after Abram did. 1876-1661 = 215 years
The Children of Israel’s 215 years in Egypt would end with the Exodus. 1446
Deuteronomy 10:1-5 – two tables of stone…
I Kings 8:9 – two tables of stone…
Deuteronomy 34:1-5 – Moses died
Joshua 1:1-2 – …go over this Jordan…
Joshua 5:13-6:2
NEXT – Lesson Three – The Late Bronze Period (1550 – 1200 B.C.) – continued.
Scripture reading:
Gen. 11:24 – Nahor lived 29 yrs. and begat Terah 2021
Gen. 11:26 – Terah lived 70 yrs. and begat Abram 1951
- Gen. 9:28 – 1893 B.C. – Noah lived after the flood 350 yrs.
- Gen. 12:10 – 1876 B.C. – And there was a famine in the land: and Abram went down into Egypt to sojourn there; for the famine was grievous in the land.
- Genesis 15:1-6 …And he believed in the LORD; and he counted it to him for righteousness. This occurred before the Law.
- Romans 4:20-25
Gen. 25:26 – Isaac was 60 yrs. old when Jacob was born. 1791
- Gen. 25:7 – Abraham lived 175 years – 1776 B.C. (1951 – 175 = 1776).
- Gen. 35:28 – Days of Isaac 180 yrs. – 1671 B.C. (1851 – 180 = 1671).
The Late Bronze Period (1550 – 1200 B.C.)
Exodus 12:40-41 – Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years. And it came to pass at the end of the four hundred and thirty years, even the selfsame day it came to pass, that all the hosts of the Lord went out from the land of Egypt (According to Genesis 12:10, the sojourning began with Abraham in Egypt).
Genesis 12:10 – Abram went into Egypt to sojourn there. 1876 – 430 = 1446
Galatians 3:17 – And this I say, that the covenant (Gen. 12:1-3), that was confirmed before of God in Christ, the law, which was four hundred and thirty years after, cannot disannul, that it should make the promise of none effect. 1876 – 430 = 1446
Gen. 47:9 – Jacob (along with his children) arrived in Egypt exactly 215 years after Abram did. 1876-1661 = 215 years
The Children of Israel’s 215 years in Egypt would end with the Exodus. 1446
Deuteronomy 10:1-5 – two tables of stone…
I Kings 8:9 – two tables of stone…
Deuteronomy 34:1-5 – Moses died
Joshua 1:1-2 – …go over this Jordan…
Joshua 5:13-6:2
NEXT – Lesson Three – The Late Bronze Period (1550 – 1200 B.C.) – continued.
Bible Study from an Archaeological Perspective
Lesson Three
The Late Bronze Period (1550 – 1200 B.C.) – continued
Scripture reading:
Joshua 1:1-2 – …go over this Jordan…
Joshua 5:13-6:2
Archaeological evidence:
In addition to the biblical references, archeology also affirms the 1446 B.C. date for the Exodus. John Garstang, who excavated Jericho in the 1930s, dated the destruction of Jericho around 1400 B.C. Jericho was the first city that the Israelites conquered under the leadership of Joshua when they entered the land of Canaan. Adding forty years to Garstang’s date (to account for Israel’s wandering before entering Canaan) puts the exodus shortly before 1440 B.C. Garstang also concluded that the walls of the city toppled outward, which would compare favorably with Josh. 6:5, 20 (The fallen walls became as a ramp for the Israelites to go up into the city).
Lesson Three
The Late Bronze Period (1550 – 1200 B.C.) – continued
Scripture reading:
Joshua 1:1-2 – …go over this Jordan…
Joshua 5:13-6:2
Archaeological evidence:
In addition to the biblical references, archeology also affirms the 1446 B.C. date for the Exodus. John Garstang, who excavated Jericho in the 1930s, dated the destruction of Jericho around 1400 B.C. Jericho was the first city that the Israelites conquered under the leadership of Joshua when they entered the land of Canaan. Adding forty years to Garstang’s date (to account for Israel’s wandering before entering Canaan) puts the exodus shortly before 1440 B.C. Garstang also concluded that the walls of the city toppled outward, which would compare favorably with Josh. 6:5, 20 (The fallen walls became as a ramp for the Israelites to go up into the city).
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Archaeologist John Garstang discovered several scarabs and a seal in a cemetery near Jericho. Pictured (from left to right): a scarab of Hatshepsut (c. 1473–1458 B.C.), a scarab of Thutmose III (reigned c. 1479–1426 B.C.), reverse side of a seal of Thutmose III, and scarab of Amenhotep III (c. 1390–1353 B.C.). Collectively they demonstrate that the city’s cemetery was in active use during the time that Kathleen Kenyon believed that Jericho was abandoned. Photo Credit, Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem.
The scarab on the right is part of the Chrysler Collection and features the cartouche of Thutmose III (reigned c. 1479–1426 B.C.) – Men-Kheper-Ra. To the left, the god Thoth (scribe of the gods). Purchased in 2016 from Tarrab Coins & Antiquities – Salem Oregon.
The scarab on the right is part of the Chrysler Collection and features the cartouche of Thutmose III (reigned c. 1479–1426 B.C.) – Men-Kheper-Ra. To the left, the god Thoth (scribe of the gods). Purchased in 2016 from Tarrab Coins & Antiquities – Salem Oregon.
Archaeologist, Dr. Bryant Wood discovered that Kenyon had based her dating of the destruction of Jericho solely on the absence of imported pottery. During her excavations at Jericho (1952 to 1958), Kenyon did not find any imported bichrome (two-color) pottery from Cyprus, which is a prime indicator of Late Bronze I occupation. Thus, she concluded that it was unoccupied at Joshua’s time and had been destroyed 150 years earlier. (She would have done well to follow esteemed Egyptologist, Kenneth Kitchen’s maxim, “The absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.”)
Examples of locally made bichrome pottery discovered by archaeologist John Garstang at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho). Photos Credit: Associates for Biblical Research
Inexplicably, Kenyon seems to have failed to consider the pottery discovered by Garstang. He had unearthed numerous examples of a locally made, imitation bichrome “Cypriot” pottery from the destruction layer of the final Canaanite city of Jericho. Garstang called it “red ware” and several of the pieces he published have classic Cypriot bichrome motifs.
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Late Bronze Age pottery excavated by Kathleen Kenyon. 1. flaring carinated bowl (Jericho 4, fig. 110:1); 2-4. bowls decorated with internal concentric circles (Jericho 5, fig. 206:2; Jericho 4, fig. 110:8 and Jericho 5, fig. 206:1); 5-7. bowls (Jericho 5, fig. 191:16, Jericho 4, fig. 109:34 and Jericho 5, fig. 189:2); 8. storage jar (Jericho 5, fig. 199:6); 9. lamp (Jericho 5, fig. 197:2.); 10-12. cooking pots (Jericho 5, fig. 198:10; Jericho 4, figs. 150:22 and 121:11); 13. decorated water jar (Jericho 5, fig. 206:11); 14. dipper juglet (Jericho 5, fig. 196:5).
The dipper juglet on the right is from the Chrysler Collection. It is considered transitional between the long dipper juglet of the Middle Bronze and the Late Bronze II short dipper juglet and is the common form for Late Bronze I. Amiran – Plate 46, #7; Kenyon – Jericho V, Fig. 196, #5. Purchased in 2016 from Licensed Dealer in Israel – Uri Shovanov.
The dipper juglet on the right is from the Chrysler Collection. It is considered transitional between the long dipper juglet of the Middle Bronze and the Late Bronze II short dipper juglet and is the common form for Late Bronze I. Amiran – Plate 46, #7; Kenyon – Jericho V, Fig. 196, #5. Purchased in 2016 from Licensed Dealer in Israel – Uri Shovanov.
Scripture reading:
Joshua 6:17-19; 24 – Instructions about plunder
Joshua 6:26 – The curse
Archaeological evidence:
Joshua 6:17-19; 24 – Instructions about plunder
Joshua 6:26 – The curse
Archaeological evidence:
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Jars full of grain found by John Garstang at Jericho. They were charred in the fire that the Israelites set to destroy the Canaanite city. A total of six bushels of grain were discovered in a single excavation season amid the charred debris of City IV.
Jericho summary:
The city was heavily fortified (Josh 2:5,7,15; 6:5,20); it was destroyed in harvest time (Josh 2:6; 3:15; 5:10-12); the inhabitants of Jericho had no opportunity to flee with their food (Josh 6:1); the siege was short (Josh 6:15); the walls fell down flat (Josh 6:20); the invaders did not plunder the city (Josh 6-17-18); the city was burned (Josh 6:24). These things all point to the accuracy of the Biblical account. When archaeology is correctly interpreted, the evidence uncovered supports the historical accuracy of the Bible, even in the smallest detail.
The Amarna tablets
British palaeographer and biblical scholar, Frederic George Kenyon wrote, “In the year 1887 an Egyptian woman found, amid the ruins of an ancient city about half-way between Thebes and Memphis, a collection of some 350 clay tablets inscribed with strange markings. [The tablets are now mainly divided between Berlin and the British Museum.] The city is now well known as Tell el-Amarna, the capital of the remarkable king Amenhotep IV, or Akhenaten, who made a vain attempt to revolutionize the religion of his country, and was the father-in-law of Tutankhamen, the discovery of whose tomb by Lord Carnarvon made such a sensation at the end of 1922. The tablets of Tell el-Amarna, however, raised an almost equal sensation among Oriental scholars; for here, in the middle of Egypt, were documents written not after the manner of the country, in the Egyptian language and upon papyrus, but engraved upon clay in the unmistakable cuneiform, or wedge-shaped script characteristic of Mesopotamia. Nor did their surprise lessen as the writings were deciphered and their meaning ascertained. For these tablets proved to be the official correspondence of Egyptian governors or vassal-princes, from various places in Palestine and Syria, with their overlord, the king of Egypt. Their date is about the year 1380 B.C., which, according to the view now generally accepted, and which seems to be confirmed by the recent excavations at Jericho, is the period when Joshua and the Hebrews were overrunning southern Palestine, while the Hittites were conquering Damascus, and the Amorites were invading Phoenicia. Jerusalem, Lachish, Hazor, Megiddo, Gezer, are mentioned by name; and complaints are made of the assaults of the Habiru, who have been generally regarded as the Hebrews, though the identification is not accepted by all scholars” (Sir Frederick Kenyon, Our Bible & the Ancient Manuscripts, 1939, p. 5).
The city was heavily fortified (Josh 2:5,7,15; 6:5,20); it was destroyed in harvest time (Josh 2:6; 3:15; 5:10-12); the inhabitants of Jericho had no opportunity to flee with their food (Josh 6:1); the siege was short (Josh 6:15); the walls fell down flat (Josh 6:20); the invaders did not plunder the city (Josh 6-17-18); the city was burned (Josh 6:24). These things all point to the accuracy of the Biblical account. When archaeology is correctly interpreted, the evidence uncovered supports the historical accuracy of the Bible, even in the smallest detail.
The Amarna tablets
British palaeographer and biblical scholar, Frederic George Kenyon wrote, “In the year 1887 an Egyptian woman found, amid the ruins of an ancient city about half-way between Thebes and Memphis, a collection of some 350 clay tablets inscribed with strange markings. [The tablets are now mainly divided between Berlin and the British Museum.] The city is now well known as Tell el-Amarna, the capital of the remarkable king Amenhotep IV, or Akhenaten, who made a vain attempt to revolutionize the religion of his country, and was the father-in-law of Tutankhamen, the discovery of whose tomb by Lord Carnarvon made such a sensation at the end of 1922. The tablets of Tell el-Amarna, however, raised an almost equal sensation among Oriental scholars; for here, in the middle of Egypt, were documents written not after the manner of the country, in the Egyptian language and upon papyrus, but engraved upon clay in the unmistakable cuneiform, or wedge-shaped script characteristic of Mesopotamia. Nor did their surprise lessen as the writings were deciphered and their meaning ascertained. For these tablets proved to be the official correspondence of Egyptian governors or vassal-princes, from various places in Palestine and Syria, with their overlord, the king of Egypt. Their date is about the year 1380 B.C., which, according to the view now generally accepted, and which seems to be confirmed by the recent excavations at Jericho, is the period when Joshua and the Hebrews were overrunning southern Palestine, while the Hittites were conquering Damascus, and the Amorites were invading Phoenicia. Jerusalem, Lachish, Hazor, Megiddo, Gezer, are mentioned by name; and complaints are made of the assaults of the Habiru, who have been generally regarded as the Hebrews, though the identification is not accepted by all scholars” (Sir Frederick Kenyon, Our Bible & the Ancient Manuscripts, 1939, p. 5).
A letter from Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem to the Egyptian Pharaoh. 1st half of the 14th century B.C. Akkadian cuneiform text. From Tell el-Amarna, Egypt. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin.
“The present interest in the Habiru is primarily caused by three factors: (1) the resemblance between the names Habiru and Hebrew, (2) the chronological relationship between the Amarna Habiru and the Israelites, and (3) the proximity of their location within the land of Canaan to that of the Hebrews in Joshua’s time” (S. Douglas Waterhouse, Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, Who are the Habiru of the Amarna Letters? 12/1 (2001): 31–42. Andrews University).
“The Amarna Letters from Jerusalem are of interest for a number of reasons, not the least of which is that they come from Jerusalem a few centuries before King David would ostensibly vanquish the Canaanite (Jebusite) population of Jerusalem and make it his own capital (II Samuel 5). Also, the correspondence with a Jerusalem ruler in the 14th century provides evidence for occupation in the city in a period (Late Bronze Age II) for which there is little archaeological evidence. Recently a fragment of an Akkadian tablet (now called ‘Jerusalem Tablet 1’) was found in excavations at Jerusalem, and some scholars have claimed that this tablet contained some correspondence between a king of Jerusalem and a king of Egypt. But this tablet is ultimately too fragmentary to determine if it was a letter. Among the most important things that these tablets demonstrate is that there was a vibrant and sophisticated scribal apparatus in Jerusalem during the Late Bronze Age. This Canaanite city was certainly not a backwater, but precisely the reverse” (Christopher Rollston, Jerusalem in the Amarna Letters).
“The Amarna Letters from Jerusalem are of interest for a number of reasons, not the least of which is that they come from Jerusalem a few centuries before King David would ostensibly vanquish the Canaanite (Jebusite) population of Jerusalem and make it his own capital (II Samuel 5). Also, the correspondence with a Jerusalem ruler in the 14th century provides evidence for occupation in the city in a period (Late Bronze Age II) for which there is little archaeological evidence. Recently a fragment of an Akkadian tablet (now called ‘Jerusalem Tablet 1’) was found in excavations at Jerusalem, and some scholars have claimed that this tablet contained some correspondence between a king of Jerusalem and a king of Egypt. But this tablet is ultimately too fragmentary to determine if it was a letter. Among the most important things that these tablets demonstrate is that there was a vibrant and sophisticated scribal apparatus in Jerusalem during the Late Bronze Age. This Canaanite city was certainly not a backwater, but precisely the reverse” (Christopher Rollston, Jerusalem in the Amarna Letters).
Fragment of Cuneiform tablet (‘Jerusalem Tablet 1’) found in Jerusalem. Hebrew University excavations unearthed a clay fragment dating back to the 14th century B.C.
The Mount Ebal Tablet
Deuteronomy 27:12-13
Deuteronomy 28:1-5; 15-17
Deuteronomy 27:12-13
Deuteronomy 28:1-5; 15-17
Archaeologists estimate the "curse tablet," made from a folded lead sheet and inscribed with proto-alphabetic characters, may be at least 3,200 years old. (Credit: ABR/Michael C. Luddeni)
Associates for Biblical Research archaeologist Dr. Scott Stripling said that his team found the curse tablet high on Mount Ebal, just north of the city of Nablus, in December 2019.
The ancient Hebrew inscription in proto-alphabetic script consists of 40 letters and is centuries older than any known Hebrew inscription (Khirbet Qeiyafa, ca. 1000 B.C.) from ancient Israel.
It reads: |Cursed, cursed, cursed - cursed by the God YHW.
|You will die cursed.
Cursed you will surely die.
Cursed by YHW – cursed, cursed, cursed.
The curse tablet came to light when Scott Stripling led an ABR team to wet sift the discarded material from Adam Zertal’s excavations (1982–1989) on Mt. Ebal. The stratigraphy of the site — in other words, the dates of different layers of earth determined by archaeological excavations — suggest that the tablet dates to around 1200 B.C. at the very latest, and perhaps as early as 1400 B.C., Stripling said.
The ancient Hebrew inscription in proto-alphabetic script consists of 40 letters and is centuries older than any known Hebrew inscription (Khirbet Qeiyafa, ca. 1000 B.C.) from ancient Israel.
It reads: |Cursed, cursed, cursed - cursed by the God YHW.
|You will die cursed.
Cursed you will surely die.
Cursed by YHW – cursed, cursed, cursed.
The curse tablet came to light when Scott Stripling led an ABR team to wet sift the discarded material from Adam Zertal’s excavations (1982–1989) on Mt. Ebal. The stratigraphy of the site — in other words, the dates of different layers of earth determined by archaeological excavations — suggest that the tablet dates to around 1200 B.C. at the very latest, and perhaps as early as 1400 B.C., Stripling said.
Scarab found just north of the Mt. Ebal altar.
This scarab displays a kneeling Egyptian archer and the cartouche of Tuthmosis III (1479–1426 B.C.). What looks like a capital letter "B" in the center of the scarab is a double bow held by a kneeling archer, far left. The cartouche of the great conqueror Tuthmosis III appears at the far right. At the top is a crawling salamander, an Egyptian symbol of abundance.
Scripture reading:
Joshua 24:1-13 – Summary
NEXT – Lesson Four – The Iron Period – Part One - The Iron I A – II B Period (1200 – 800 B.C.) – From the Judges unto King Hazael of Damascus.
Scripture reading:
Joshua 24:1-13 – Summary
NEXT – Lesson Four – The Iron Period – Part One - The Iron I A – II B Period (1200 – 800 B.C.) – From the Judges unto King Hazael of Damascus.
Bible Study from an Archaeological Perspective
Lesson Four
The Iron Period - PART ONE: The Iron I A – II B Period (1200 – 800 B.C.) – From the Judges unto King Hazael of Damascus.
Scripture reading:
Deuteronomy 6:10-12 – Beware lest thou forget the Lord
Deuteronomy 7:1-2; 9:4-6 – The wickedness of these nations
Archaeological evidence:
Michal Dayagi-Mendels, Curator of Israelite and Persian Periods, Israel Museum wrote, “It is clear from archaeological evidence that the decline of the Canaanite culture and the appearance of the Israelites in the country were not discrete historical events but were rather a historical process that lasted for roughly two hundred years” (Michal Dayagi-Mendels, Treasures of the Holy Land, Israelite Period/ Iron Age, 1986, p. 137).
Lesson Four
The Iron Period - PART ONE: The Iron I A – II B Period (1200 – 800 B.C.) – From the Judges unto King Hazael of Damascus.
Scripture reading:
Deuteronomy 6:10-12 – Beware lest thou forget the Lord
Deuteronomy 7:1-2; 9:4-6 – The wickedness of these nations
Archaeological evidence:
Michal Dayagi-Mendels, Curator of Israelite and Persian Periods, Israel Museum wrote, “It is clear from archaeological evidence that the decline of the Canaanite culture and the appearance of the Israelites in the country were not discrete historical events but were rather a historical process that lasted for roughly two hundred years” (Michal Dayagi-Mendels, Treasures of the Holy Land, Israelite Period/ Iron Age, 1986, p. 137).
Merneptah Stele. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Discovered in western Thebes, Egypt, in 1896
The inscription says it was carved in the 5th regnal year of Pharaoh Merneptah (1208 B.C.) of the 19th dynasty and contains the earliest reference to “Israel” outside of the text of the Bible. Most of the text glorifies Merneptah's victories over enemies from Libya and their Sea People allies, but the final three lines (out of twenty-eight) mention a campaign in Canaan, where Merneptah says:
“Now that Tehenu has come to ruin, Hatti is pacified. Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe. Ashkelon has been overcome. Gezer has been captured. Yano‘am was made non-existent. Israel is laid waste – his seed is not. Hurru has become a widow because of Egypt. All lands have united themselves in peace. Anyone who was restless, he has been subdued by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt…” (Biblical Archaeology Review, 16:05, Sept/Oct 1990).
“Now that Tehenu has come to ruin, Hatti is pacified. Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe. Ashkelon has been overcome. Gezer has been captured. Yano‘am was made non-existent. Israel is laid waste – his seed is not. Hurru has become a widow because of Egypt. All lands have united themselves in peace. Anyone who was restless, he has been subdued by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt…” (Biblical Archaeology Review, 16:05, Sept/Oct 1990).
• This Israel was well enough established by around 1200 B.C. among the other peoples of Canaan to have been perceived by Egyptian intelligence as a possible challenge to Egyptian authority. Israel was no less significant than Ashkelon and Gezer, two of the more important city-states in Palestine at the time.
Scripture reading:
Judges 2:8-10 – Another generation which knew not the Lord
Judges 2:16 – The Lord raised up judges which delivered them
Judges 7:1-4, 7, 12, 16-23 – Gideon (ca. 1180 B.C.)
Archaeological evidence:
Scripture reading:
Judges 2:8-10 – Another generation which knew not the Lord
Judges 2:16 – The Lord raised up judges which delivered them
Judges 7:1-4, 7, 12, 16-23 – Gideon (ca. 1180 B.C.)
Archaeological evidence:
Single-spouted lamp from Iron Age I with traces of burning. Found in Hebron – Amiran – Plate 100, #7. Purchased in 1984 from Omar Kahyam Museum – Old City, Jerusalem.
Scripture reading:
Judges 15:20 – and he (Samson) judged Israel in the days of the Philistines twenty years.
Judges 16:28-31; 21:24-25
I Samuel 3:19-20
I Samuel 8:4-9; 19-22 – Israel’s demand for a king
I Samuel 9:15-17 – …thou shalt anoint him…
Archaeological evidence:
Judges 15:20 – and he (Samson) judged Israel in the days of the Philistines twenty years.
Judges 16:28-31; 21:24-25
I Samuel 3:19-20
I Samuel 8:4-9; 19-22 – Israel’s demand for a king
I Samuel 9:15-17 – …thou shalt anoint him…
Archaeological evidence:
Black juglet – Israel Grey ware with burnished black slip. Handle stretching from the middle of the straight neck to the shoulder, an ovoid body, and a button base (type C3). Used to contain anointing oil and may be synonymous with a “horn of oil.” Amiran – Plate 86, #12. Purchased in 2016 from David Axlerod, David Street 89, Jerusalem.
I Samuel 10:1, 23-25 – Saul anointed and made king
The use of fragrant oil in cultic ritual entailed the pouring of sacred oil on a person or object, which symbolically designated the person or object as set aside for sacred service or use. This sacred anointing was reserved for the priests and kings of Israel, who were designated to serve these roles by having sacred fragrant oil poured on their heads by a holy man at the behest of the deity (e.g., Exodus 29:7). In 1 Samuel 10:1 the expression pak ha emen, “juglet of oil,” is used in the narrative of the anointing of Saul as the first king of Israel by the prophet Samuel, an event set in the late Iron Age I. This narrative provides a glimpse into the use of an oil juglet during the time that black juglets were in vogue.
Scripture reading:
I Samuel 13:13-14 – First mention of David
I Samuel 16:1-3, 10-13 – David anointed
I Samuel 31:6-7 – Saul’s death
II Samuel 1:11-12 – David mourned Saul’s death
II Samuel 2:3-4, 11 – David anointed king over Judah (1010 B.C.) 70 yrs. after Gideon
II Samuel 5:1-5 – David anointed king over Israel
II Samuel 5:6-10 – Jerusalem conquered
II Samuel 5:11 – And Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar trees, and carpenters, and masons: and they built David an house.
Archaeological evidence:
The use of fragrant oil in cultic ritual entailed the pouring of sacred oil on a person or object, which symbolically designated the person or object as set aside for sacred service or use. This sacred anointing was reserved for the priests and kings of Israel, who were designated to serve these roles by having sacred fragrant oil poured on their heads by a holy man at the behest of the deity (e.g., Exodus 29:7). In 1 Samuel 10:1 the expression pak ha emen, “juglet of oil,” is used in the narrative of the anointing of Saul as the first king of Israel by the prophet Samuel, an event set in the late Iron Age I. This narrative provides a glimpse into the use of an oil juglet during the time that black juglets were in vogue.
- The black juglets have played a prominent role in recent excavations in the dating of stratigraphy and material remains.
Scripture reading:
I Samuel 13:13-14 – First mention of David
I Samuel 16:1-3, 10-13 – David anointed
I Samuel 31:6-7 – Saul’s death
II Samuel 1:11-12 – David mourned Saul’s death
II Samuel 2:3-4, 11 – David anointed king over Judah (1010 B.C.) 70 yrs. after Gideon
II Samuel 5:1-5 – David anointed king over Israel
II Samuel 5:6-10 – Jerusalem conquered
II Samuel 5:11 – And Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar trees, and carpenters, and masons: and they built David an house.
Archaeological evidence:
This Phoenician-style capital was found by Kathleen Kenyon among a tumble of large ashlars in her site XVIII, which is just north and east of the Stepped-Stone Structure. It had fallen from an important building on top of the ridge and, according to Kenyon, dates to the time of David and Solomon.
I Kings 1:9-10 – Adonijah by En-rogel
I Kings 1:32-49 – Solomon anointed king
I Kings 1:32-49 – Solomon anointed king
Cave entrance to Gihon Spring (Credit: Bud Chrysler 1984)
View to the south from the area of the Gihon Spring. En-rogel lies at bottom of the Kidron Valley in the distance. (Credit: Bud Chrysler 1984)
View to the north from the area of En-rogel in the Kidron Valley (Credit: Bud Chrysler)
Scripture reading:
I Kings 6:1 – And it came to pass in the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month Zif, which is the second month, that he began to build the house of the Lord.
1446 – 480 = 966
I Kings 6:1 – And it came to pass in the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month Zif, which is the second month, that he began to build the house of the Lord.
1446 – 480 = 966
- If the fourth year of his reign was 966 B.C., then Solomon became king in 970 B.C. (966 + 4).
- David became king in 1010 B.C. (970 + 40).
- 970 – 40 = 930 B.C. Rehoboham became king
So David slept with his fathers, and was buried in the city of David (I Kings 2:10)
And Solomon slept with his fathers, and was buried in the city of David his father: and Rehoboam his son reigned in his stead (I Kings 11:43). Credit: Bud Chrysler 1984.
And Solomon slept with his fathers, and was buried in the city of David his father: and Rehoboam his son reigned in his stead (I Kings 11:43). Credit: Bud Chrysler 1984.
(I Kings 14:25-26) – And it came to pass in the fifth year of king Rehoboham, that Shishak king of Egypt came up against Jerusalem: And he took away the treasures of the house of the LORD, and the treasures of the king’s house; he even took away all: and he took away all the shields of gold which Solomon had made.
The majority of scholars agree that Shoshenq I was Pharaoh in Egypt from 945-924 B.C. and that the Egyptian ruler referred to in the Bible as Shishak (I Kings & II Chronicles) is, in fact, Pharaoh Shoshenq I. He was the first Egyptian king to be mentioned by name in the Bible (I Kings 11:40; 14:25; II Chronicles 12:2-9).
The majority of scholars agree that Shoshenq I was Pharaoh in Egypt from 945-924 B.C. and that the Egyptian ruler referred to in the Bible as Shishak (I Kings & II Chronicles) is, in fact, Pharaoh Shoshenq I. He was the first Egyptian king to be mentioned by name in the Bible (I Kings 11:40; 14:25; II Chronicles 12:2-9).
The archaeological evidence suggests that Shishak (Shoshenq I) was Pharaoh from 945-924 B.C.
Pharaoh Shishshak (Shoshenq I) left an account of his campaign on a wall in the temple of Amun at Karnak, in Upper Egypt. The Bubastite portal includes a large, weathered relief in which the pharaoh lists more than 150 towns (including Megiddo) he conquered during his military campaign into Israel and Judah.
“Today the vast majority of scholars believe that the Bubastite Portal records a real Egyptian campaign by Pharaoh Shoshenq in the mid-to-late tenth century B.C.E. As concluded by Israel’s leading Biblical geographer Anson Rainey: “This inscription can only be based on intelligence information gathered during a real campaign by Pharaoh Shoshenq.” Kenneth Kitchen has called the reality of Shoshenq’s campaign during the reign of Rehoboam “beyond reasonable doubt.” If this campaign occurred in 925 B.C.E. and, as the Bible says, this was the fifth year of Rehoboam’s rule in Judah, Rehoboam would have become king, and Solomon’s reign would have ended in 930 B.C.E. (925 + 5)” (Yigal Levin, Did Pharaoh Sheshonq Attack Jerusalem?, Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 2012, pp. 48-49).
“Today the vast majority of scholars believe that the Bubastite Portal records a real Egyptian campaign by Pharaoh Shoshenq in the mid-to-late tenth century B.C.E. As concluded by Israel’s leading Biblical geographer Anson Rainey: “This inscription can only be based on intelligence information gathered during a real campaign by Pharaoh Shoshenq.” Kenneth Kitchen has called the reality of Shoshenq’s campaign during the reign of Rehoboam “beyond reasonable doubt.” If this campaign occurred in 925 B.C.E. and, as the Bible says, this was the fifth year of Rehoboam’s rule in Judah, Rehoboam would have become king, and Solomon’s reign would have ended in 930 B.C.E. (925 + 5)” (Yigal Levin, Did Pharaoh Sheshonq Attack Jerusalem?, Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 2012, pp. 48-49).
At the site of Megiddo a portion of a commemorative stela of Shishak (Shoshenq I) was found by the University of Chicago Oriental Institute excavations in 1926. His name can be clearly read, and the stela is undoubtedly related to the 925 B.C. campaign. Photo: D. Ellis/P. Van der Veen
The Tel Dan Stele, ca. 840 B.C. containing the House of David inscription was discovered in 1993 at the site of Tel Dan in northern Israel in an excavation directed by Israeli archaeologist Avraham Biran. Photo courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority.
The writing on the stones is dated through paleography to the mid-9th century B.C. Although the Aramaic king’s name is not found in the surviving text, the most likely candidate is Hazael of Damascus, whose rivalry with Israel is recorded in the Bible (II Kings 8:7-15).
The most notable feature of the inscription is the use of the expression “House of David” (Hebrew, BYT DWD) in line 9, making it the earliest known extra-biblical mention of David and the dynasty he founded. This is crucial for corroborating the biblical account, since many scholars have at least minimized the importance of the actual David, if not relegated him to fictional myth. The expression “House of David” is used repeatedly in the Bible for the Davidic Dynasty (for example, I Kings 12:19, 13:2; Isaiah 7:2; Psalm 122:5). It reigned over all Israel in the period of the United Monarchy (10th century B.C.) and over Judah during the Divided Monarchy until the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.
The identification of the Aramaic king who authored the stele as Hazael fits well with the Bible’s account (II Kings 10:32-33; 13:3, 22) of his frequent attacks on Israel.
NEXT – Lesson Five – The Iron Period – continued - PART TWO - Iron II C Period – ca. 700 B.C. thru 586 B.C. – From Sennacherib’s Assyrian campaign unto Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylonian campaign.
Bud Chrysler, July 2022 – www.biblicalarchaeologytruth.com
The most notable feature of the inscription is the use of the expression “House of David” (Hebrew, BYT DWD) in line 9, making it the earliest known extra-biblical mention of David and the dynasty he founded. This is crucial for corroborating the biblical account, since many scholars have at least minimized the importance of the actual David, if not relegated him to fictional myth. The expression “House of David” is used repeatedly in the Bible for the Davidic Dynasty (for example, I Kings 12:19, 13:2; Isaiah 7:2; Psalm 122:5). It reigned over all Israel in the period of the United Monarchy (10th century B.C.) and over Judah during the Divided Monarchy until the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.
The identification of the Aramaic king who authored the stele as Hazael fits well with the Bible’s account (II Kings 10:32-33; 13:3, 22) of his frequent attacks on Israel.
NEXT – Lesson Five – The Iron Period – continued - PART TWO - Iron II C Period – ca. 700 B.C. thru 586 B.C. – From Sennacherib’s Assyrian campaign unto Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylonian campaign.
Bud Chrysler, July 2022 – www.biblicalarchaeologytruth.com