Early Kings of Persia - © 2024 Arthur B. Chrysler
Kings of Lydia. Sardeis. Kroisos 560-546 BC. Siglos or Half Stater AR 16 mm, 5,32 g. Confronted foreparts of a lion and a bull / Two incuse squares, one larger than the other.
Kroisos, the last king of Lydia, held sway over a prosperous kingdom in western Anatolia from around 595 BC to 546 BC. His reign was marked by notable achievements, with Lydia becoming renowned for its wealth. The phrase "as rich as Croesus" reflects the opulence associated with his name.
Under Kroisos, Lydia expanded its influence, conquering Ionian Greek cities along the western coast of Anatolia. Notable among these conquests were cities like Ephesus and Miletus, which fell under Lydia's dominion. Kroisos also engaged in diplomatic relations with various Greek city-states, and his interactions with the Oracle of Delphi are particularly noteworthy.
The Oracle's response, perceived as a prediction of victory over the Persians, played a pivotal role in Kroisos's decision to wage war against Cyrus the Great, the formidable leader of the Persian Empire. However, the Battle of Thymbra in 546 BC marked a turning point. Kroisos suffered defeat, and Lydia succumbed to Persian rule.
The tale of Kroisos is intricately linked with the famous incident involving the Oracle of Delphi. Seeking guidance before the war, Kroisos received an ambiguous prophecy that a great empire would be destroyed. The unforeseen consequence was the downfall of his own kingdom.
Following his defeat, Kroisos became a captive of Cyrus, and the details of his fate vary among historical accounts. Some suggest he narrowly escaped execution through his actions or divine intervention.
The rise and fall of Kroisos and Lydia serve as a poignant chapter in the ancient Near East's historical narrative, illustrating the uncertainties of fate and the consequences of relying on oracles. The legacy of Kroisos endures as a cautionary tale, emphasizing the unpredictable nature of power and fortune in the annals of ancient history.
Daniel 5:25-31 – And this is the writing that was written, Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin. This is the interpretation of the thing: Mene; God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished it. Tekel; Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. Peres; Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. Then commanded Belshazzar, and they clothed Daniel with scarlet, and put a chain of gold about his neck, and made a proclamation concerning him, that he should be the third ruler in the kingdom. In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. And Darius the Median took the kingdom, being about threescore and two years old.
Ezra 1:1-2 – Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, The Lord God of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth; and he hath charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah.
Daniel 6:28 – So this Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian.
“The identification of Cyrus the Persian king with Darius the Mede accords well with the prophecies of Isaiah (13:17) and Jeremiah (51:11, 28), who saw in the Medes the conquerors of Babylon. …It is possible that these prophecies led to the employment of this title for Cyrus in Daniel 5:31. It should be noted that the identity of Cyrus with Media accords well with Ezra 6:2 which states that records of his decrees were kept in Ecbatana, Media. Also, the tradition of Josephus (Antiq. X.II.4) that Daniel was removed by Darius to Media” (D. J. Wiseman, Notes on some problems in the Book of Daniel, 1965, p. 14).
“In October, 539 B.C., Gobryas took Babylon without a fight. Nabonidus, who had fled, was subsequently taken prisoner. A few weeks later Cyrus himself entered the city in triumph. According to his own inscription, he was welcomed as a liberator by the Babylonians, to whom he showed the utmost consideration” (John Bright, A History of Israel, 1981, p. 360).
Daniel 9:1:2 – In the first year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes, which was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans; In the first year of his reign I Daniel understood by books the number of the years, whereof the word of the Lord came to Jeremiah the prophet, that he would accomplish seventy years in the desolations of Jerusalem.
Under Kroisos, Lydia expanded its influence, conquering Ionian Greek cities along the western coast of Anatolia. Notable among these conquests were cities like Ephesus and Miletus, which fell under Lydia's dominion. Kroisos also engaged in diplomatic relations with various Greek city-states, and his interactions with the Oracle of Delphi are particularly noteworthy.
The Oracle's response, perceived as a prediction of victory over the Persians, played a pivotal role in Kroisos's decision to wage war against Cyrus the Great, the formidable leader of the Persian Empire. However, the Battle of Thymbra in 546 BC marked a turning point. Kroisos suffered defeat, and Lydia succumbed to Persian rule.
The tale of Kroisos is intricately linked with the famous incident involving the Oracle of Delphi. Seeking guidance before the war, Kroisos received an ambiguous prophecy that a great empire would be destroyed. The unforeseen consequence was the downfall of his own kingdom.
Following his defeat, Kroisos became a captive of Cyrus, and the details of his fate vary among historical accounts. Some suggest he narrowly escaped execution through his actions or divine intervention.
The rise and fall of Kroisos and Lydia serve as a poignant chapter in the ancient Near East's historical narrative, illustrating the uncertainties of fate and the consequences of relying on oracles. The legacy of Kroisos endures as a cautionary tale, emphasizing the unpredictable nature of power and fortune in the annals of ancient history.
- Cyrus the Great (r. 550-530 BC) – Daniel 9:1-2 – In the first year of Darius (Cyrus) the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes, which was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans; In the first year of his reign I Daniel understood by books the number of the years, whereof the word of the Lord came to Jeremiah the prophet, that he would accomplish seventy years (589 B.C. – 520 B.C. – Jer. 39:1; Ezekiel 24:1-2; Haggai 2:10, 15-19) in the desolations of Jerusalem. [“Now from the tenth day of Tebeth B.C. 589 (Ezekiel 24:1-2), to the twenty-fourth day of Chisleu B.C. 520 (the second year of Darius Hystaspes – Haggai 2:10, 15-19) was a period of 25,202 days. Seventy years of 360 days contain exactly 25,200 days. We may conclude, therefore, that the era of the ‘desolations’ was a period of seventy years of 360 days, beginning with the day after the Babylonian army invested Jerusalem, and ending the day before the foundation of the second temple was laid”] (Sir Robert Anderson, The Coming Prince, 1954, pp. 70-71).]
Daniel 5:25-31 – And this is the writing that was written, Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin. This is the interpretation of the thing: Mene; God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished it. Tekel; Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. Peres; Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. Then commanded Belshazzar, and they clothed Daniel with scarlet, and put a chain of gold about his neck, and made a proclamation concerning him, that he should be the third ruler in the kingdom. In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. And Darius the Median took the kingdom, being about threescore and two years old.
Ezra 1:1-2 – Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, The Lord God of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth; and he hath charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah.
- In 1957 D. J. Wiseman put forward as a working hypothesis the possibility that Darius the Mede is to be identified with Cyrus the Persian king.
Daniel 6:28 – So this Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian.
“The identification of Cyrus the Persian king with Darius the Mede accords well with the prophecies of Isaiah (13:17) and Jeremiah (51:11, 28), who saw in the Medes the conquerors of Babylon. …It is possible that these prophecies led to the employment of this title for Cyrus in Daniel 5:31. It should be noted that the identity of Cyrus with Media accords well with Ezra 6:2 which states that records of his decrees were kept in Ecbatana, Media. Also, the tradition of Josephus (Antiq. X.II.4) that Daniel was removed by Darius to Media” (D. J. Wiseman, Notes on some problems in the Book of Daniel, 1965, p. 14).
“In October, 539 B.C., Gobryas took Babylon without a fight. Nabonidus, who had fled, was subsequently taken prisoner. A few weeks later Cyrus himself entered the city in triumph. According to his own inscription, he was welcomed as a liberator by the Babylonians, to whom he showed the utmost consideration” (John Bright, A History of Israel, 1981, p. 360).
Daniel 9:1:2 – In the first year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes, which was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans; In the first year of his reign I Daniel understood by books the number of the years, whereof the word of the Lord came to Jeremiah the prophet, that he would accomplish seventy years in the desolations of Jerusalem.
- Cambyses II (r. 530-522 BC).
- Bardiya (r. 522 BC).
Type I. Darius I, c. 521 - 510/505 BC. c. 5.30 - 5.40 g. Half-length figure of the Great King right, crowned, two arrows in right, bow in left, bearded, crowned. Sardis mint.
Darius I The Great (r. 522-486 BC) – Haggai 2:10, 15-19 – In the four and twentieth day of the ninth month, in the second year of Darius (520 B.C.), came the word of the Lord by Haggai the prophet, saying… … 15 And now, I pray you, consider from this day and upward, from before a stone was laid upon a stone in the temple of the Lord: Since those days were, when one came to an heap of twenty measures, there were but ten: when one came to the pressfat for to draw out fifty vessels out of the press, there were but twenty. I smote you with blasting and with mildew and with hail in all the labours of your hands; yet ye turned not to me, saith the Lord. Consider now from this day and upward, from the four and twentieth day of the ninth month, even from the day that the foundation of the Lord's temple was laid, consider it. Is the seed yet in the barn? yea, as yet the vine, and the fig tree, and the pomegranate, and the olive tree, hath not brought forth: from this day will I bless you.
Type II. Darius I-Xerxes I. Circa 510/505-486 B.C. AR Siglos (15 mm, 5.1 gm). Persian king (Darius I) or hero in kneeling-running stance right, drawing bow / Incuse punch.
“Darius I the Great was the third Persian King after Cyrus the Great. From 522–486 B.C. Darius reigned over the vast and expanding Persian Empire, which under his leadership attained its geographical zenith – including the Holy Land. He is mentioned by name in Scripture several times, appearing in Haggai, Zechariah, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel.1 It is widely accepted that the type of coin shown here was issued under his reign.
Darius revised the monetary system by changing the weight structure and introducing new designs on coinage. Rather than the bull and lion depictions commonly used on Lydian coinage under Croesus, Darius’ new Persian types featured a human figure holding a military archer bow. On this coin the figure appears kneeling on his right knee, drawing a bow as though in preparation for shooting an arrow. The inclusion of military-related designs was likely an intentional effort to in some way communicate Persia’s strength.
Whether or not this human figure was intended to represent any one person is uncertain, but the idea of it as a depiction of King Darius is conceivable. Reasons in favor of this include that these types commenced under Darius, several examples of these types show the figure wearing a crown as would a royal personage, these same design types when stamped on gold pieces were termed “Darics” even as far back as the time in which they were produced, the figure always holds a weapon and Darius proudly claimed to be an excellent bowman and spearman, and on “both the famous rock relief at Bisitun and on his tomb in Nashq-i Rustam, Darius holds a bow”.2 The coin’s weight reveals it to be a siglos (5.1g).
Darius revised the monetary system by changing the weight structure and introducing new designs on coinage. Rather than the bull and lion depictions commonly used on Lydian coinage under Croesus, Darius’ new Persian types featured a human figure holding a military archer bow. On this coin the figure appears kneeling on his right knee, drawing a bow as though in preparation for shooting an arrow. The inclusion of military-related designs was likely an intentional effort to in some way communicate Persia’s strength.
Whether or not this human figure was intended to represent any one person is uncertain, but the idea of it as a depiction of King Darius is conceivable. Reasons in favor of this include that these types commenced under Darius, several examples of these types show the figure wearing a crown as would a royal personage, these same design types when stamped on gold pieces were termed “Darics” even as far back as the time in which they were produced, the figure always holds a weapon and Darius proudly claimed to be an excellent bowman and spearman, and on “both the famous rock relief at Bisitun and on his tomb in Nashq-i Rustam, Darius holds a bow”.2 The coin’s weight reveals it to be a siglos (5.1g).
Although this siglos is still a one-sided design as was the Croeseid types, this new Persian type reveals a change in production method in that the side opposite the design has just a single punch rather than two. This coin’s likely production circa 505–480 B.C., would have meant that it circulated not only under the reign of Darius I but also under that of his son Xerxes I, whose mother was a daughter of Cyrus II the Great. During Darius’ reign the Jews remained in subjugation to Persia, but the Jews “enjoyed much peace and prosperity”.3
Under the early regnal years of Darius, the prophecies contained in the books of Haggai and Zechariah were given. In Darius’ second regnal year the Persian designated governor of the province of Judah, Zerubbabel, received a divine message of direction through the prophet Haggai (Haggai 1:1-11). This message moved Zerubbabel and Joshua the High Priest to raise an altar for sacrificial offerings, lead observance of the Feast of Tabernacles, begin reconstructive work on the Temple, and lay the Temple’s foundation (Haggai 1:13-15; Ezra 3:2-13).
In Scripture Darius is perhaps most well-known for his decree that reconstructive work on the Jerusalem Temple should resume after having ceased due to a cunning plot by adversaries to Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezra 6:1-12). Because of Darius’ strong royal decree being carried out, and because of the obedience of the Jews to the prophesies and direction of Haggai and Zechariah, the Temple was completed under Darius’ reign (Ezra 6:13-15).4
A significant and famous event which involved Darius’ powerful Persian military was the Battle at Marathon, 490 B.C., in which the Athenian Greeks defeated the Persians and thereby prolonged a degree of Greek independence by having prevented control of Attica falling to the Persians.5 This decisive battle is the origin of the 26.2 mile “marathon race”. After this humiliating defeat Darius began to amass another military attack on the Greek mainland, but due to poor health he died with this aim still in a planning process. However, his son Xerxes I, would pick up his father’s mantle in this regard, and commence what is today termed as the second Persian invasion of Greece.
ENDNOTES
1 Scripture refers to more than one personage by the name “Darius”. The Darius in focus here was the fourth king of Persia, and one of three men named Darius in the Bible. A different Darius is referred to as Darius the Mede in Daniel 6:1 and 11:1, and yet another is Darius is named in Nehemiah 12:22 as Darius the Persian. [ISBE Bible Dictionary, Darius, #2527]
2 The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Edited by William E. Metcalf. Oxford University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-937218-8. “The Coinage of the Persian Empire”. Michael Alram. Page 61
3 Easton Bible Dictionary, Darius, #975
4 Despite the finished Temple construction, the city of Jerusalem remained only partially populated and the city walls and gates was still in serious disrepair from the Babylonian siege some 70 years prior.
5 “The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to begin at Marathon. Since the following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in western society, the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in European history” (http://military.wikia.com/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon
- Rev. R. Atherton, 2017).
Under the early regnal years of Darius, the prophecies contained in the books of Haggai and Zechariah were given. In Darius’ second regnal year the Persian designated governor of the province of Judah, Zerubbabel, received a divine message of direction through the prophet Haggai (Haggai 1:1-11). This message moved Zerubbabel and Joshua the High Priest to raise an altar for sacrificial offerings, lead observance of the Feast of Tabernacles, begin reconstructive work on the Temple, and lay the Temple’s foundation (Haggai 1:13-15; Ezra 3:2-13).
In Scripture Darius is perhaps most well-known for his decree that reconstructive work on the Jerusalem Temple should resume after having ceased due to a cunning plot by adversaries to Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezra 6:1-12). Because of Darius’ strong royal decree being carried out, and because of the obedience of the Jews to the prophesies and direction of Haggai and Zechariah, the Temple was completed under Darius’ reign (Ezra 6:13-15).4
A significant and famous event which involved Darius’ powerful Persian military was the Battle at Marathon, 490 B.C., in which the Athenian Greeks defeated the Persians and thereby prolonged a degree of Greek independence by having prevented control of Attica falling to the Persians.5 This decisive battle is the origin of the 26.2 mile “marathon race”. After this humiliating defeat Darius began to amass another military attack on the Greek mainland, but due to poor health he died with this aim still in a planning process. However, his son Xerxes I, would pick up his father’s mantle in this regard, and commence what is today termed as the second Persian invasion of Greece.
ENDNOTES
1 Scripture refers to more than one personage by the name “Darius”. The Darius in focus here was the fourth king of Persia, and one of three men named Darius in the Bible. A different Darius is referred to as Darius the Mede in Daniel 6:1 and 11:1, and yet another is Darius is named in Nehemiah 12:22 as Darius the Persian. [ISBE Bible Dictionary, Darius, #2527]
2 The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Edited by William E. Metcalf. Oxford University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-937218-8. “The Coinage of the Persian Empire”. Michael Alram. Page 61
3 Easton Bible Dictionary, Darius, #975
4 Despite the finished Temple construction, the city of Jerusalem remained only partially populated and the city walls and gates was still in serious disrepair from the Babylonian siege some 70 years prior.
5 “The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to begin at Marathon. Since the following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in western society, the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in European history” (http://military.wikia.com/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon
- Rev. R. Atherton, 2017).
5th Century BC Kings Of Persia
Type IIIa. Darius I - Xerxes I, c. 490/480 - 475 BC. c. 5.30 - 5.39 g. Kneeling-running figure of the Great King right, transverse spear with point downward in right, bow in left, bearded, crowned. Sardis mint. Possibly introduced in connection with the accession of Xerxes.
Xerxes I (r. 485-465 B.C.) – The Elephantine Papyri constitute contemporary sources of information for the reigns of Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II (Nothus). They extend from the “fourteenth year of Xerxes,” 471-470 B.C., to the seventeenth year of Darius II, 408 B.C. “Moreover, we have sent all about the matters in a letter in our name to Delaiah and Shelemaiah, the sons of Sanaballat, the Governor of Samaria.” – Nehemiah 2:19; 4:1-2, 7-8; 13:26-28 etc..
- Artaxerxes I (r. 465-424 BC) – Nehemiah 2:1-4 – And it came to pass in the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king (445 B.C.), that wine was before him: and I took up the wine, and gave it unto the king. Now I had not been beforetime sad in his presence. Wherefore the king said unto me, Why is thy countenance sad, seeing thou art not sick? this is nothing else but sorrow of heart. Then I was very sore afraid, And said unto the king, Let the king live for ever: why should not my countenance be sad, when the city, the place of my fathers' sepulchres, lieth waste, and the gates thereof are consumed with fire? Then the king said unto me, For what dost thou make request? So I prayed to the God of heaven.
Type IIIb (early). Xerxes I - Darius II, c. 485 - 420 BC. c. 5.55 - 5.60 g.
Type IIIb (late). Artaxerxes I - Artaxerxes II, c. 450 - 375 BC. c. 5.55 - 5.60 g.
- Darius II (r. 424-404 BC) – The “seventeenth year of Darius,” 408 B. C. (Elephantine Papyri).
Type IV (early) A. Artaxerxes I - Darius II, c. 450 - 420 BC. c. 5.55 - 5.60 g. Kneeling-running figure of the Great King right, dagger in right, bow in left, bearded, crowned, sometimes a symbol in reverse incuse.
4th Century BC Kings Of Persia:
- Artaxerxes II (r. 404-358 BC).
Type IV (middle) B. Darius II - Artaxerxes II, c. 420 - 375 BC. c. 5.55 - 5.60 g.
Type IV (late) C. Artaxerxes II - Darius III, c. 375 - 336 BC.
- Artaxerxes III (r. 358-338 BC) – Attacked Egypt and after subduing the region he embarked on a campaign to punish the Egyptians for their resistance.
- Artaxerxes IV (r. 338-336 BC) – With the death of Artaxerxes III, his only surviving son Aršaka became King of Persia and took the name Artaxerxes IV. This sudden change in leadership along with the youth and inexperience of Artaxerxes IV weakened the Achaemenid Empire. Seizing upon this weakness Philip of Macedon demanded that the King of Persia pay reparations for Achaemenid support of his rivals. When Artaxerxes IV refused, Philip sent 10,000 troops into Asia Minor in 336 BC. At the same time, the King of Persia attempted to rid himself of Bagoas, who poisoned Artaxerxes IV and the rest of his family in response. Later Macedonian propaganda would depict Artaxerxes IV as the last true King of Persia.
- Darius III (r. 336-330 BC) – The last of the official Kings of Persia. The same year Darius III became King of Persia, Philip of Macedon invaded Asia Minor and “liberated” a number of Greek cities in the region. Following Philip’s assassination, his son, Alexander the Great, renewed the campaign after a short pause in 334 BC. Darius III hoped that the local satraps could deal with Alexander while he fomented rebellion in Greece and used the Persian fleet to cut Alexander’s supplies. When this failed Darius faced Alexander in battle at Issus in 333 BC, and Gaugamela in 331 BC, and was disastrously defeated on both occasions.
- Artaxerxes V (r.330-329 BC).
2 And now will I shew thee (Daniel) the truth. Behold, there shall stand up yet three kings in Persia (Darius I The Great, r. 522-486 BC.; Artaxerxes I, r. 465-424 BC.); and the fourth (Darius III, r. 336-330 BC) shall be far richer than they all: and by his strength through his riches he shall stir up all against the realm of Grecia.
3 And a mighty king shall stand up (Alexander), that shall rule with great dominion, and do according to his will.
4 And when he shall stand up, his kingdom shall be broken, and shall be divided toward the four winds of heaven; and not to his posterity, nor according to his dominion which he ruled: for his kingdom shall be plucked up, even for others beside those. (The four generals who took over Alexander the Great's empire after his death were Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus. They divided the empire into four regions, with Ptolemy ruling Egypt, Seleucus ruling the eastern provinces, Cassander ruling Macedonia, and Lysimachus ruling Thrace and Asia Minor.
Elephantine papyri
In the Berlin Museum is a collection of papyri found by Dr. O. Rubensohn, director of the German Society's excavations at Elephantine in the winter of 1907.
Three of these papyri have been copied and translated by Professor Sachau of Berlin. They are the copy of a letter sent by the Jews of Elephantine to Bagoas, the governor of Judah; together with a duplicate of it and a memorandum of the reply received. The original letter reads as follows:
To our Master Bagoas, Governor of Judah: Thy servants Jedoniah and his companions, priests in the fortress Yeb. May our Lord the God of Heaven greatly increase prosperity for thee at all times and grant thee grace in the sight of King Darius and the members of his household, a thousand fold more than thou hast now; and may he grant thee long life. Mayst thou be happy and enjoy good health continually.
Now thy servants, Jedoniah and his companions, speak as follows: in the month Tammuz in the fourteenth year of King Darius, when Arsam had departed and gone to the King, the priests of the god Chnub, who were in the fortress Yeb, conspired with Widrang who was Governor (?) and said, "the temple of the God Yahu which is in Yeb the fortress, let it be removed thence." Thereupon this Widrang, the Commandant (?), sent a letter to his son Nephayan who was captain of the garrison in Assuan the fortress, saying, "the temple which is in the fortress Yeb is to be destroyed." Thereupon Nephayan led forth Eygptians together with other troops. They came to the fortress Yeb with their pick-axes (?).
They went up into this temple. They razed it to the ground and the pillars of stone which were there they broke in pieces; moreover, the seven stone gates, built of hewn stone, which were in that temple, they destroyer, the seven stone gates, built of hewn stone, which were in that temple, they destroyed and turned them upside down (?).
The hinges of the bronze doors and the roof which was all of cedar, together with the plaster of the wall and other articles which were there, all of them they burned with fire. And the sacrificial bowls of gold and silver, and whatever else was in this temple, all of it they took and used for themselves. Now from the day of the King(s) of Egypt our fathers had built this temple in the fortress Yeb. And when Cambyses came to Egypt he found this temple built; and although the temples of the gods of Egypt were all destroyed, no one harmed anything in this temple. And ever since they did this, we with our wives and children have clothed ourselves in sack cloth and have been fasting and praying to Yahu the Lord of the Heavens, who has given us vengeance upon this Widrang, the Commandant (?). The anklet of office was removed from his feet and all the goods which he had acquired perished; and all who wished evil against this temple have been slain and we have seen our desire upon them.
Even before this, at the time when this harm was done to us, we sent a letter to our master and to Johanan, the High Priest and his companions the priests in Jerusalem, and to Ostan the brother of Anani. But the nobles of the Jews sent us no reply.
Moreover, from the Tammuz day of the fourteenth year of Darius the King even up to this very day, we have clothed ourselves in sack cloth and fasted. Our wives are become like widows. We have not anointed ourselves with oil, nor drunk wine. Moreover, from that time even unto this day of the seventeenth year of Darius the King, meal-offerings, incense-offerings and burnt-offerings have not been presented in the temple.
Now thy servant Jedoniah and his companions and the Jews, all the citizens of Yeb, say as follows: If it seem good to our master, let him bethink himself upon this temple that it may be built; for we are not permitted to build it. Look upon the recipients of thy goodness and of thy favor who are here in Eygpt.
Let a letter be sent from thee to them concerning the temple of the God Yahu, that it may be built in Yeb the fortress just as it was built in former times. And they will offer meal-offerings and incense-offerings and burnt-offerings upon the altar of the God Yahu in thy name, and we will pray for thee continually; we and our wives and our children and all the Jews that are here. If thou doest thus, so that this temple may be rebuilt, then there shall be righteousness to thee in the sight of Yahu, God of the Heavens, more than that of the man who offers to him burnt-offerings and sacrifices to the value of a thousand talents of silver. Concerning the gold, concerning this we have sent, we have given directions. Moreover, we have sent all about the matters in a letter in our name to Delaiah and Shelemaiah, the sons of Sanaballat, the Governor of Samaria. Moreover, Arsam knew nothing of all this that has been done to us. On the twentieth day of Marcheswan, in the seventeenth year of Darius the King.
A favorable reply to this letter was evidently received as appears from the acompanying memorandum of its contents:
Memorandum of what Bagoas and Delaiah said to me. Memorandum as follows: Thou shalt say, in Egypt before Arsam concerning the house of the altar of the God of Heavens which was built in Yeb the fortress before our time, prior to the time of Cambyses, which Widrang this Commandant (?) destroyed in the fourteenth year of Darius the King, that it is to be rebuilt in its place just as it was before our time, and meal-offerings and incense-offerings shall be offered upon this altar as used to be done formerly.
The two series of papyri constitute contemporary sources of information for the reigns of Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II (Nothus). They extend from the fourteenth year of Xerxes, 471-470 B. C., to the seventeenth year of Darius, 408 B. c. The commercial documents come down as far as 411 B. C, within three years of the date of the letter regarding the temple. The chronological data they furnish concerning the reigns of the Persian kings harmonize perfectly with the chronology previously ascertained. Furthermore, it seems safe to say that on the whole the papyri tend to establish the essential correctness of the book of Nehemiah as over against Josephus, with reference to the period to which Sanballat belonged.
See: C. H. Wright, Light From Egyptian Papyri, 1908
Three of these papyri have been copied and translated by Professor Sachau of Berlin. They are the copy of a letter sent by the Jews of Elephantine to Bagoas, the governor of Judah; together with a duplicate of it and a memorandum of the reply received. The original letter reads as follows:
To our Master Bagoas, Governor of Judah: Thy servants Jedoniah and his companions, priests in the fortress Yeb. May our Lord the God of Heaven greatly increase prosperity for thee at all times and grant thee grace in the sight of King Darius and the members of his household, a thousand fold more than thou hast now; and may he grant thee long life. Mayst thou be happy and enjoy good health continually.
Now thy servants, Jedoniah and his companions, speak as follows: in the month Tammuz in the fourteenth year of King Darius, when Arsam had departed and gone to the King, the priests of the god Chnub, who were in the fortress Yeb, conspired with Widrang who was Governor (?) and said, "the temple of the God Yahu which is in Yeb the fortress, let it be removed thence." Thereupon this Widrang, the Commandant (?), sent a letter to his son Nephayan who was captain of the garrison in Assuan the fortress, saying, "the temple which is in the fortress Yeb is to be destroyed." Thereupon Nephayan led forth Eygptians together with other troops. They came to the fortress Yeb with their pick-axes (?).
They went up into this temple. They razed it to the ground and the pillars of stone which were there they broke in pieces; moreover, the seven stone gates, built of hewn stone, which were in that temple, they destroyer, the seven stone gates, built of hewn stone, which were in that temple, they destroyed and turned them upside down (?).
The hinges of the bronze doors and the roof which was all of cedar, together with the plaster of the wall and other articles which were there, all of them they burned with fire. And the sacrificial bowls of gold and silver, and whatever else was in this temple, all of it they took and used for themselves. Now from the day of the King(s) of Egypt our fathers had built this temple in the fortress Yeb. And when Cambyses came to Egypt he found this temple built; and although the temples of the gods of Egypt were all destroyed, no one harmed anything in this temple. And ever since they did this, we with our wives and children have clothed ourselves in sack cloth and have been fasting and praying to Yahu the Lord of the Heavens, who has given us vengeance upon this Widrang, the Commandant (?). The anklet of office was removed from his feet and all the goods which he had acquired perished; and all who wished evil against this temple have been slain and we have seen our desire upon them.
Even before this, at the time when this harm was done to us, we sent a letter to our master and to Johanan, the High Priest and his companions the priests in Jerusalem, and to Ostan the brother of Anani. But the nobles of the Jews sent us no reply.
Moreover, from the Tammuz day of the fourteenth year of Darius the King even up to this very day, we have clothed ourselves in sack cloth and fasted. Our wives are become like widows. We have not anointed ourselves with oil, nor drunk wine. Moreover, from that time even unto this day of the seventeenth year of Darius the King, meal-offerings, incense-offerings and burnt-offerings have not been presented in the temple.
Now thy servant Jedoniah and his companions and the Jews, all the citizens of Yeb, say as follows: If it seem good to our master, let him bethink himself upon this temple that it may be built; for we are not permitted to build it. Look upon the recipients of thy goodness and of thy favor who are here in Eygpt.
Let a letter be sent from thee to them concerning the temple of the God Yahu, that it may be built in Yeb the fortress just as it was built in former times. And they will offer meal-offerings and incense-offerings and burnt-offerings upon the altar of the God Yahu in thy name, and we will pray for thee continually; we and our wives and our children and all the Jews that are here. If thou doest thus, so that this temple may be rebuilt, then there shall be righteousness to thee in the sight of Yahu, God of the Heavens, more than that of the man who offers to him burnt-offerings and sacrifices to the value of a thousand talents of silver. Concerning the gold, concerning this we have sent, we have given directions. Moreover, we have sent all about the matters in a letter in our name to Delaiah and Shelemaiah, the sons of Sanaballat, the Governor of Samaria. Moreover, Arsam knew nothing of all this that has been done to us. On the twentieth day of Marcheswan, in the seventeenth year of Darius the King.
A favorable reply to this letter was evidently received as appears from the acompanying memorandum of its contents:
Memorandum of what Bagoas and Delaiah said to me. Memorandum as follows: Thou shalt say, in Egypt before Arsam concerning the house of the altar of the God of Heavens which was built in Yeb the fortress before our time, prior to the time of Cambyses, which Widrang this Commandant (?) destroyed in the fourteenth year of Darius the King, that it is to be rebuilt in its place just as it was before our time, and meal-offerings and incense-offerings shall be offered upon this altar as used to be done formerly.
The two series of papyri constitute contemporary sources of information for the reigns of Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II (Nothus). They extend from the fourteenth year of Xerxes, 471-470 B. C., to the seventeenth year of Darius, 408 B. c. The commercial documents come down as far as 411 B. C, within three years of the date of the letter regarding the temple. The chronological data they furnish concerning the reigns of the Persian kings harmonize perfectly with the chronology previously ascertained. Furthermore, it seems safe to say that on the whole the papyri tend to establish the essential correctness of the book of Nehemiah as over against Josephus, with reference to the period to which Sanballat belonged.
See: C. H. Wright, Light From Egyptian Papyri, 1908
One of Nehemiah's archenemies was Sanballat, a leader of the Samaritans. This same Sanballat's name has been discovered on a letter from Elephantine that mentions "Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat, the governor of Samaria."
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Yehud (YHD) Athena & Owl silver Gerah (Ma’ah) ca. 350 BCE. Mint: Yehud Medinata Province, (Jerusalem area). Obverse: Head of Athena, wearing helmet; Reverse: Owl standing right, head facing, small lily behind; Aramaic ‘YHD’ in right field. Weight: .51 g.
As with the YHD King’s-head coin and the YHD Lily-flower coin, the tiny silver coin featured here was produced and circulated within what was the Persian province of Yehud centered closely around modern-day Jerusalem in 4th century BCE while under Persian dominance.
By its type and weight this coin is considered to be one Gerah. Exodus 30:13, Leviticus 27:25, Numbers 3:47, and Numbers 18:16 each state that a Shekel consisted of 20 Gerahs. Multiplying the weight of this example by 20 produces a result remarkably near the 11.4 grams weight of an Iron-Age Judean Shekel. This closeness, in view of technology at the time of production, was quite a feat. The study of the weight and monetary systems within the ancient Holy Land is complex and at times perplexing. So much so that a close study of just the Gerah weight coinage alone has “caused a lot of headaches to scholars.”
A notable factor of this YHD coin is that it was an intentional imitation of the much larger, internationally recognized, silver tetradrachms struck in Athens which featured Athena on the obverse and an owl on the reverse – exactly as does this type! Hence, whereas other YHD coin types serve as numismatic evidence of Persian influence in the Holy Land, this type provides obvious numismatic evidence of early Greek influence (Hellenism) in the area even before the arrival of Alexander.
The Athena portrayal on both the YHD and Athens coin types are right facing, in a profile view, with Athena wearing a helmet. But nuances of style, visible on the very highest quality of extant YHD examples, can be discerned by experts. Similarly, the two owls themselves are quite alike. Each stand to the right with head-facing, large eyes, and wings folded in back. However, ethnic differences exist in what is seen behind and in front of the owl. The Athenian owl type includes an olive sprig behind the owl, which is a direct reference to the goddess Athena’s gifting to Athens of its first olive tree in connection with her contest against the Greek god Poseidon. The YHD owl also includes a portion of a plant behind it, but rather than an olive sprig it is a three-petaled lily flower as a symbol of Jerusalem.3 A second difference is that the Athens owl stands aside a vertical, three-letter abbreviation in Greek for Athens (AΘE); while the Yehud owl stands aside a vertical, three-letter abbreviation in paleo-Hebrew for Yehud (as detailed below).
By its type and weight this coin is considered to be one Gerah. Exodus 30:13, Leviticus 27:25, Numbers 3:47, and Numbers 18:16 each state that a Shekel consisted of 20 Gerahs. Multiplying the weight of this example by 20 produces a result remarkably near the 11.4 grams weight of an Iron-Age Judean Shekel. This closeness, in view of technology at the time of production, was quite a feat. The study of the weight and monetary systems within the ancient Holy Land is complex and at times perplexing. So much so that a close study of just the Gerah weight coinage alone has “caused a lot of headaches to scholars.”
A notable factor of this YHD coin is that it was an intentional imitation of the much larger, internationally recognized, silver tetradrachms struck in Athens which featured Athena on the obverse and an owl on the reverse – exactly as does this type! Hence, whereas other YHD coin types serve as numismatic evidence of Persian influence in the Holy Land, this type provides obvious numismatic evidence of early Greek influence (Hellenism) in the area even before the arrival of Alexander.
The Athena portrayal on both the YHD and Athens coin types are right facing, in a profile view, with Athena wearing a helmet. But nuances of style, visible on the very highest quality of extant YHD examples, can be discerned by experts. Similarly, the two owls themselves are quite alike. Each stand to the right with head-facing, large eyes, and wings folded in back. However, ethnic differences exist in what is seen behind and in front of the owl. The Athenian owl type includes an olive sprig behind the owl, which is a direct reference to the goddess Athena’s gifting to Athens of its first olive tree in connection with her contest against the Greek god Poseidon. The YHD owl also includes a portion of a plant behind it, but rather than an olive sprig it is a three-petaled lily flower as a symbol of Jerusalem.3 A second difference is that the Athens owl stands aside a vertical, three-letter abbreviation in Greek for Athens (AΘE); while the Yehud owl stands aside a vertical, three-letter abbreviation in paleo-Hebrew for Yehud (as detailed below).
333 BCE is the latest date that this coin would have been struck, as that is when Alexander the Great’s army achieved the demise of Persian control over the Holy Land. (Alexander’s arrival brought about a rather quick change in the coin types produced in an area). Determining the earliest date of possible issue for this type is not as exacting. However, because the earliest of the tiny Yehud coins which include a three-letter abbreviation of Yehud seem to have been produced near the end of the 1st quarter of the 4th century (i.e.: ca. 375 BCE) this coin type would not have preceded that date.
"The 400 Years of Silence" is the name given to the period of time between the last of the Old Testament prophets and the arrival of Jesus in the New Testament. It began with Malachi's prediction of Elijah's return (Malachi 4:5-6) circa 430 B.C and ended with its metaphorical fulfillment: the coming of John the Baptist circa 6—4 B.C.
PERSIAN SILVER OF JUDAH
OCTOBER 21, 2015 DAVID HENDIN
The first coins with Hebrew inscriptions were struck during the period when the Achaemenid or Persian Empire ruled ancient Judah. It seems likely that the earliest of those coins were struck at the Philistian mint of Gaza between 539 and 333 BCE. Later, only small denominations were struck in Judah, quite likely in or very near to Jerusalem. These are part of what is known as “Yehud” coinage because most of them were inscribed with the paleo-Hebrew legend YHD, although some carry the name Hezekiah and one very rare variety has the name of a priest named Yochanan.
It was quite a feat for coins to be minted at all in this area, which was rather out of the way in that time, and had no great technological capabilities. The mints in ancient Judah most likely resembled small blacksmith or jewelry shops, but must have been in the precinct of a fort or a palace because of the need for security in the transport and storage of uncoined silver. The early coins minted in Judah were patterned after Athenian coins and struck some time before 333 BCE when Alexander the Great brought an end to the First Persian Empire.
The denominations of the coins are uncertain. However, this group seems to be related to the known weight of the Judean shekel, which was 11.4 grams around 800 BCE during the Iron Age. The two denominations of the earliest small silver coins struck in Judah weigh around half a gram or a quarter of a gram. These weights correspond to approximately 1/24th and 1/48th of the known weight of the shekel. Archaeologists believe that there were 24 gerahs in each shekel at the time, although Exodus 30:13 informs us that “the shekel is twenty gerahs.” This discrepancy may be due to a slightly different division of the shekel in this earlier period.
Half a gram is very light and small for a coin. Manufacture of such tiny objects presented challenges because the small size of the dies that were created to strike these coins made them very fragile. The diminutive dies were subject to heavy wear and susceptible to breakage. Numismatists today can track the wearing and breaking of the dies if they can identify a sufficient number of specimens.
The most common of the early Yehud coins is a type with an obverse portrait of Athena and the reverse portrait of an owl, just like the classic Athenian tetradrachm. But instead of the AΘE ethnic inscription for Athens, the coin carries the paleo-Hebrew script YHD. The coin measures about 8 mm in diameter and weighs just half a gram, and most extant specimens, as with the example above, are in rough shape. It is estimated that this type represents a full 15% of the Yehud coins in existence.
"The 400 Years of Silence" is the name given to the period of time between the last of the Old Testament prophets and the arrival of Jesus in the New Testament. It began with Malachi's prediction of Elijah's return (Malachi 4:5-6) circa 430 B.C and ended with its metaphorical fulfillment: the coming of John the Baptist circa 6—4 B.C.
PERSIAN SILVER OF JUDAH
OCTOBER 21, 2015 DAVID HENDIN
The first coins with Hebrew inscriptions were struck during the period when the Achaemenid or Persian Empire ruled ancient Judah. It seems likely that the earliest of those coins were struck at the Philistian mint of Gaza between 539 and 333 BCE. Later, only small denominations were struck in Judah, quite likely in or very near to Jerusalem. These are part of what is known as “Yehud” coinage because most of them were inscribed with the paleo-Hebrew legend YHD, although some carry the name Hezekiah and one very rare variety has the name of a priest named Yochanan.
It was quite a feat for coins to be minted at all in this area, which was rather out of the way in that time, and had no great technological capabilities. The mints in ancient Judah most likely resembled small blacksmith or jewelry shops, but must have been in the precinct of a fort or a palace because of the need for security in the transport and storage of uncoined silver. The early coins minted in Judah were patterned after Athenian coins and struck some time before 333 BCE when Alexander the Great brought an end to the First Persian Empire.
The denominations of the coins are uncertain. However, this group seems to be related to the known weight of the Judean shekel, which was 11.4 grams around 800 BCE during the Iron Age. The two denominations of the earliest small silver coins struck in Judah weigh around half a gram or a quarter of a gram. These weights correspond to approximately 1/24th and 1/48th of the known weight of the shekel. Archaeologists believe that there were 24 gerahs in each shekel at the time, although Exodus 30:13 informs us that “the shekel is twenty gerahs.” This discrepancy may be due to a slightly different division of the shekel in this earlier period.
Half a gram is very light and small for a coin. Manufacture of such tiny objects presented challenges because the small size of the dies that were created to strike these coins made them very fragile. The diminutive dies were subject to heavy wear and susceptible to breakage. Numismatists today can track the wearing and breaking of the dies if they can identify a sufficient number of specimens.
The most common of the early Yehud coins is a type with an obverse portrait of Athena and the reverse portrait of an owl, just like the classic Athenian tetradrachm. But instead of the AΘE ethnic inscription for Athens, the coin carries the paleo-Hebrew script YHD. The coin measures about 8 mm in diameter and weighs just half a gram, and most extant specimens, as with the example above, are in rough shape. It is estimated that this type represents a full 15% of the Yehud coins in existence.
JUDAEA. Hellenistic period. Circa 333-285 BCE. Silver Tetartemorion (0.19 g). Bare head of young male left / "YHD", Ptolemaic style eagle standing left.
